Metal Application



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Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Chemical

Used as a process catalyst for a number of processes, including the oxo process for the conversion of alkenes to n-aldehydes (hydroformylation)

8% (54) (global)


cobalt

adequate

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling

Substitute refers to the cobalt catalyst that was previously used in the oxo process for the production of aldehydes from alkenes (56)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Glass

Used as an alloying agent with platinum in glass manufacturing equipment

3% (54) (global)


platinum

adequate

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling

Substitute refers to the use of platinum either alone or with an alloying agent other than rhodium, such as gold or iridium (58)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Electrical

Used as an alloying agent with platinum in thermocouples, and in sliding and pressure contacts used for electric motors

<1% (54) (global)


nickel

adequate

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Substitute refers to nickel used in type K and type N thermocouples that can be used in oxidizing or inert atmospheres up to 1260°C (59)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Other

Various uses, including electroplating onto metal surfaces, such as jewelry, to provide protection and finishing

4% (54) (global)


not applicable

not applicable

Rhodium coatings are noted as being superior to all other platinum-group metal coatings in terms of hardness, mechanical and chemical stability, and reflectivity (60)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Pd

Autocatalyst

Used as a catalyst used to control vehicle exhaust emissions

54% (54) (global)


platinum

good

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Platinum and palladium are noted as being equally effective at controlling emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles (61)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Electrical

Includes a wide variety of uses in electronics, including as a thick film paste used in multilayer ceramic capacitors

17% (54) (global)


nickel

good

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Substitute refers to the use of nickel-based multilayer ceramic capacitors in place of those based on palladium (62)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Jewelry

Used as a fabricated jewelry and alloying agent

12% (54) (global)


platinum

good

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Substitute refers to platinum jewelry alloyed with elements other than palladium (62)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Dental

Used as an alloying agent in dental restorations

8% (54) (global)


nickel

good

Refers to nickel-based metal alloys used in restorative dentistry (63)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Investment

Used in coins and exchange traded funds

5% (54) (global)


gold

good

Gold, silver, and platinum can presumably be used as alternatives to palladium as a medium for investing

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Chemical

Used as a process catalyst for a variety of chemical and petroleum applications

4% (54) (global)


nickel

adequate

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling

Substitute refers to nickel catalysts that can be used in hydrogenation of alkynes to alkenes (64), indirect synthesis of hydrogen peroxide (65), and in hydro-cracking and hydro-treating (64)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Other

Various uses, including the control of industrial emissions and oxygen sensors

1% (54) (global)


not applicable

not applicable

Presumably other platinum-group metals can be used instead of palladium in these other applications

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Ag

Electrical and electronics

Used in switching devices, batteries, calculators, and hearing aids

23% (66) (global)

copper (66)

poor




Jewelry

Jewelry

18% (66) (global)

gold (66)

exemplary




Investment

Used as coins and medals

14% (66) (global)

gold (66)

exemplary




Photography

Used in the manufacture of film, photographic paper, photocopying paper, and x-ray film

12% (66) (global)


paper (66)

adequate




Silverware

Used in bowls and flatware

6% (66) (global)

stainless steel (36)

exemplary




Other

Includes uses in solders, bearings, dental amalgams, and mirrors

27% (66) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




Cd

Batteries (consumer)

Used in nickel-cadmium batteries in cordless power tools, cellular phones, camcorders, portable computers, portable household appliances, and toys

66% (global)


lithium-ion batteries

exemplary

Estimates derived from data for total use in batteries (1), combined with the indication that, of total cadmium usage in batteries, 80% is for consumer batteries and 20% is for industrial batteries (67)

Batteries (industrial)

Used in nickel-cadmium batteries for a variety of industrial uses (e.g., in the aircraft industry for starting and emergency power)

17% (global)


none

not applicable

Estimates derived from data for total use in batteries (1), combined with the indication that, of total cadmium usage in batteries, 80% is for consumer batteries and 20% is for industrial batteries (67)

Pigments

Used mainly in plastics, but also in glasses, ceramics, and enamels

8% (1) (global)

cerium sulfide (1)

adequate (68)




Coatings

Used mainly in industrial applications for transportation (e.g., shipbuilding, railway, aircraft, and critical automotive uses), industrial fasteners, and communications

7% (1) (global)


none

not applicable




Other

For example, as stabilizers in plastics

2% (1) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




In

Indium tin oxide thin-film coatings (mostly for liquid crystal displays)

Used in flat-panel devices and liquid crystal displays

84% (42) (global)


aluminum-doped zinc oxide (69)

adequate

Global values are for 2007


Solders and alloys

Used in solders and alloys in aircraft and automotive applications, as well as in bearings, dies, seals, and sputtering targets

8% (42) (global)


gallium (70)

good

Global values are for 2007


Electrical components and semiconductors

Used in computers, batteries, photodetectors, and photovoltaic/solar cells

2% (42) (global)


gallium arsenide (71)

good

Global values are for 2007


Other

Includes research and compounds

6% (42) (global)

not applicable

not applicable

Global values are for 2007


Sn

Solder

Used in electronics

54% (72) (global)

epoxy resin (1)

good

Global values are for 2009

Tinplate

Used mainly in cans and containers

17% (72) (global)

aluminum

exemplary

Global values are for 2009

Chemicals

Used as a polyvinyl chloride stabilizer, and in biocides and lead-acid batteries

13% (72) (global)

lead (73)

adequate

Global values are for 2009


Brass and bronze

Used in construction and transportation

5% (72) (global)

copper-based alloys

good

Global values are for 2009

Other

Includes float glass

11% (72) (global)

not applicable

not applicable

Global values are for 2009

Sb

Flame retardants

Includes use in plastics, textiles, rubber, adhesives and plastic covers for aircrafts and automobiles

51% (74) (global)


hydrated aluminum oxide (1)

adequate




Lead-acid batteries

Used mainly in vehicle batteries

26% (74) (global)


calcium alloy (75)

good




Ceramics and glass

Used as an additive to glass to remove microscopic bubbles

4% (74) (global)


tin oxide (76)

adequate




Chemicals

Used mainly as a heat stabilizer and as a catalyst for the production of polyester

7% (74) (global)


titanium (77)

poor




Other

Includes ammunition, cable coverings, fireworks, metal castings, paper, pigments, and rubber products

12% (74) (global)


not applicable

not applicable




Te

Metallurgy: ferrous products

Used as an additive to stainless steel

48% (78) (global)

bismuth (36)

good




Chemicals and catalysts

Used for the oxidation of organic compounds, hydrogenation of oils, and chlorination

25% (78) (global)

selenium (36)

good




Metallurgy: nonferrous products

Used in power and communication cables, automotive bearings, and solders

12% (78) (global)

lead (79)

good




Photoreceptor and thermoelectric devices

Used in thermal imaging devices and navigation systems

8% (78) (global)


silicon (36)

good




Other

Used as germicides, fungicides, color additives, and ceramics

7% (78) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




Ba

Oil industry

Used mainly as a weighting agent in gas and oil-well drilling fluids


84% (80) (global)

hematite

adequate

Global values are for 2008/2009 and, based upon input from an industry expert, we assume that barite represents one hundred percent of barium use

Other

Includes use as a filler in plastics, paint, and rubber, as well as use in automobile brakes and clutch pads, electronics, ceramics, and medical applications

16% (80) (global)


not applicable

not applicable

Global values are for 2008/2009 and, based upon input from an industry expert, we assume that barite represents one hundred percent of barium use

La

Fluid cracking catalysts

Used in petrochemical and related applications

46% (47) (global)

none (48)

not applicable




Battery alloys

Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries using nickel and mischmetal

16% (47) (global)

lithium-ion batteries

good (48)




Glass polishing

Includes polishing of glass and ceramics

13% (47) (global)

iron oxide

adequate (81)




Metallurgy, except batteries

Includes addition to steel to improve malleability and to molybdenum to decrease hardness

8% (47) (global)


magnesium

adequate (81)




Glass additives

Used in optical glass, infrared glass, and camera lenses

7% (47) (global)


cerium

good




Other

Includes use in welding electrodes, carbon arc lamps, and lighter flints

10% (47) (global)


not applicable

not applicable




Ce

Glass polishing

Used to polish precision optics

25% (47) (global)

iron oxide

adequate (81)




Glass additives

Used as a decolorizer and dopant

19% (47) (global)

selenium

adequate (82)




Automobile catalytic converters

Cerium oxide applied as an oxygen-exchange coating on the ceramic (83)

16% (47) (global)

lanthanum

adequate (47)




Metallurgy, except batteries

Includes aluminum, magnesium, and iron alloys

14% (47) (global)

magnesium

adequate (81)




Battery alloys

Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries using nickel and mischmetal

10% (47) (global)

lithium-ion batteries

good (48)




Other

Includes use in arc welding and carbon arc lighting

16% (47) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




Pr

Neodymium magnets

Used with neodymium and other rare earth elements in high-intensity magnets

70% (47) (global)

samarium-cobalt magnets

good (48)




Glass polishing

Used as a polishing agent for electronic and thermoelectric components

7% (47) (global)


iron oxide

adequate (81)




Metallurgy, except batteries

Used mostly in magnesium alloys for aircraft engines

7% (47) (global)


magnesium

adequate (81)




Battery alloys

Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries

5% (47) (global)


lithium-ion batteries

good (48)




Automobile catalytic converters

Used in combination with lanthanum and cerium

2% (47) (global)

cerium

good




Other

Includes use in gas doping agents for industrial lighting

9% (47) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




Nd

Neodymium magnets

Used with praseodymium and other rare earth elements in high-intensity magnets

76% (47) (global)


samarium-cobalt magnets

good (48)




Metallurgy, except batteries

Used mostly in magnesium alloys for aircraft engines

8% (47) (global)


magnesium

adequate (81)




Ceramics

Used as a coloring agent

4% (47) (global)

cerium

adequate




Automobile catalytic converters

Used in combination with lanthanum and cerium

1% (47) (global)

cerium

good




Other

Used as a coloring agent for glass

11% (47) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




Sm

Battery alloys

Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries

73% (47) (global)

lithium-ion batteries

good (48)




Other

Includes use in samarium-cobalt magnets, as a nuclear reactor neutron absorber, and as an optical glass doping agent

27% (47) (global)


not applicable

not applicable




Eu

Phosphors

Used as a red phosphor in flat-panel displays and fluorescent lamps

100% (47) (global)

none (48)

not applicable




Gd

Neodymium magnets

Used as a minor but important constituent of high-strength magnets

69% (47) (global)

neodymium

adequate (48)




Phosphors

Used as a green phosphor in flat-panel displays

21% (47) (global)

yttrium

adequate (48)




Other

Used as a contrast agent in medical imaging (84), as an x-ray intensifier (85), and in nuclear fuel rods

10% (47) (global)


not applicable

not applicable




Tb

Phosphors

Used largely in compact fluorescent lights

89% (47) (global)

erbium

adequate (48)




Neodymium magnets

Used as a minor but important constituent of high-strength magnets

11% (47) (global)

dysprosium

adequate (48)




Dy

Neodymium magnets

Used as a minor but important constituent of high-strength magnets

100% (47) (global)

none (86)

not applicable




Ho

Magnets

Used in the pole pieces of the strongest static magnets

100% (global)


neodymium magnets

adequate

Global value based on estimate for the United States (87)

Er

Phosphors

Used in fiber optic cables and flat-panel displays

100% (global)


terbium

adequate (48)

Global value based on estimate for the United States (87)

Tm

X-ray

Includes use in portable x-ray detectors and lasers

100% (global)


barium

poor

Global value based on estimate for the United States (87)

Yb

X-ray

Includes use in laser applications

100% (global)


thorium

poor

Global value based on estimate for the United States (87)

Lu

Medical

Used widely in positron emission tomography (88)

100% (global)


bismuth

adequate (85)

Global value based on estimate for the United States (87)

Hf

Aerospace

Used as an alloying additive in nickel-based superalloys in turbine vanes in the combustion zone of jet aircraft engines

39% (89) (global)


zirconium metal

good




Nuclear energy control rods

Used as control rod material in nuclear reactors

16% (89) (global)

silver-cadmium-indium alloy (1)

good




Superalloy: fuel reprocessing plants

Used in spent nuclear fuel storage racks, and for tanks and piping in spent fuel reprocessing plants

13% (89) (global)


zirconium metal

good




Refractory

Hafnium oxide used as a specialized refractory material

13% (89) (global)

zirconium dioxide

good




Manufacturing: plasma cutting tools

Pure hafnium used as the active tip for plasma arc cutting tools

9% (89) (global)


zirconium metal (90)

good




Electronics

Hafnium and hafnium oxide sputtering targets used for coatings and specialized electronic applications

4% (89) (global)


zirconium dioxide (91)

good




Other

Primarily used in optical fiber, with a smaller amount in catalysts

6% (89) (global)


not applicable

not applicable




Ta

Capacitors

Used in capacitors

48% (92) (global)

aluminum (1)

good




Alloy additives

Used primarily in superalloys in turbine engine components

16% (92) (global)

niobium (1)

good




Sputtering targets

Used in sputtering targets

11% (92) (global)

zirconium

adequate




Tantalum carbide

Used mostly in cutting tools

11% (92) (global)

niobium (1)

good




Other

Includes use in chemicals and other mill products

14% (92) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




W

Cemented carbides

Used primarily in metal cutting tools, metal forming tools (e.g., dies), and construction and mining equipment

50% (93) (global)


boron nitride (73)

adequate

Global values are for 2005


Mill products

Includes use in electronic and welding applications

15% (93) (global)

molybdenum

good

Global values are for 2005


Steel

Used primarily in metal cutting tools, metal forming tools (e.g., dies), and construction and mining equipment

8.5% (global)


molybdenum (73, 94)

good

Global values are for 2005, and superalloys and steels were aggregated in global statistics (93) so assumed an equal division of use

Superalloys

Used primarily in turbine engine components

8.5% (global)


nickel and molybdenum alloys (73)

good

Global values are for 2005, and superalloys and steels were aggregated in global statistics (93) so assumed an equal division of use

Other

Includes use in pigments

18% (93) (global)

not applicable

not applicable

Global values are for 2005

Re

Superalloys

Used primarily in turbine engine components

78% (95) (global)

none

not applicable

See comments about nickel use in aerospace

Catalysts

Used primarily in petroleum refining catalysts

15% (95) (global)

platinum

good (96)




Other

Includes use in radiation screens and semiconductors

7% (95) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




Os

Electron microscopy

Used as a staining agent in microscopic analyses

No recent publically available data, so uses are weighted equally

ruthenium

good

Substitute refers to ruthenium tetroxide as a substitute staining agent in polymer microscopy (97)

Chemical

Used as a process catalyst for a limited number of processes

ruthenium

good

Substitute refers to ruthenium tetroxide used in the syn-dihydroxylation of alkenes (98)

Other

Used as an alloying agent, typically with other platinum-group metals, for various applications

not applicable

not applicable

Presumably other platinum-group metals can be used instead of osmium in these applications

Ir

Electrochemical

Used as a coating for dimensionally stable anodes used by the chlor-alkali industry and in numerous other applications

25% (54) (global)


ruthenium

adequate

Substitute refers to the use of ruthenium and ruthenium-tin oxide coatings in the chlor-alkali industry as an alternative to the ruthenium-iridium coatings (99)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Chemical

Used as a process catalyst for several processes including acetic acid synthesis

21% (54) (global)


rhodium

adequate

Substitute refers to the rhodium catalyst used in the Monsanto acetic acid production process (56)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Electrical

Used in crucibles used to grow high purity single crystals of metal oxides

15% (54) (global)


molybdenum

poor

Substitute refers to molybdenum crucibles that can be used to grow sapphire and yttrium aluminum garnet crystals (100)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Other

Used as an alloying agent with platinum in various applications

40% (54) (global)


not applicable

not applicable

Platinum can be alloyed with elements other than iridium in certain applications

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Pt


Autocatalyst: diesel

Used as a catalyst to control exhaust emissions of vehicles powered by diesel engines

33% (54, 101) (global)


none

not applicable

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Although palladium can routinely substitute for up to 25% of platinum, it still cannot completely replace platinum in diesel applications (71)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Jewelry

Used in jewelry fabrication

26% (54) (global)


palladium

good

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Substitutes refers to palladium as a jewelry metal and alloying agent in white gold (62)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Autocatalyst: gasoline

Used as a catalyst to control exhaust emissions of vehicles powered by gasoline engines

13% (54, 101) (global)


palladium

good

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Substitute refers to the use of palladium instead of platinum in gasoline engines (62)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Investment

Used as small and large bars, coins, and exchange traded funds

7% (54) (global)


gold

good

Gold, silver, and palladium can presumably be used as alternatives to palladium as a medium for investing

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Chemical

Used as a catalyst for the production of a variety of bulk and specialty chemicals

5% (54) (global)


cobalt

adequate

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling

Substitute refers to the use of a cobalt oxide catalyst in the production of nitric acid (102)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Glass

Used in glass manufacturing equipment

4% (54) (global)


iridium

poor

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling

Recent developments have allowed iridium to be used in the glass industry although some limitations still exist (103)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Medical and biomedical

Used in dental alloys, biomedical devices, and anti-cancer drugs

3% (54) (global)


palladium

adequate

Substitute refers to the use of palladium-based alloys as alternatives to platinum-based alloys in dental (62) and biomedical applications (104)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Petroleum

Used as a catalyst for various petroleum refining processes

3% (54) (global)


molybdenum

poor

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling

Substitute refers to molybdenum oxide-based catalysts that were used in the older reforming process (82)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Electrical

Used in contacts for various electronic applications and in computer hard disks

3% (54) (global)


palladium

adequate

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

Substitute refers to iron-palladium and cobalt-palladium alloys in thin films that have been investigated for use in computer hard disk drives (105)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding


Other

Used in various applications, including stationary pollution control, spark plugs and oxygen sensors, and corrosion resistant coatings

4% (54) (global)


not applicable

not applicable

Other platinum-group metals can presumably be used in some of these other applications

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Au

Jewelry

Jewelry

62% (106) (global)

silver (66)

good




Official transactions and private investment

Used as medallions and small bars

23% (106) (global)

silver (66)

good




Electronics

Used in printed circuit boards, connectors, semiconductors, and thermocouples

8% (106) (global)

silver (106)

adequate




Dental and medical

Used in dental fillings

2% (106) (global)

silver (36)

adequate




Other industrial

Used in industrial control and monitoring instruments, and corrosion-resistant chemical process equipment

5% (106) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




Hg

Artisanal and small-scale gold mining

Used for gold extraction

21% (107) (global)

borax (108)

adequate

Global values are for 2005

Vinyl chloride monomer production

Used as the catalyst in the production of vinyl chloride monomer

20% (107) (global)

precious metal salts (109)

adequate

Global values are for 2005

Chlorine-caustic soda manufacturing

Used in the mercury cell process for the production of chlorine and sodium hydroxide

13% (107) (global)

membrane cells (1)

good

Global values are for 2005


Dental equipment and supplies

Used mainly in dental amalgams

10% (107) (global)

ceramic composites (1)

exemplary

Global values are for 2005

Electrical: batteries

Used in batteries

10% (107) (global)

lithium ion batteries

exemplary

Global values are for 2005


Electrical: electrical and electronic devices

Used in wiring devices and switches

5% (107) (global)


gallium indium alloy (110)

adequate

Global values are for 2005

Substitute of gallium indium alloy functions as a direct replacement for mercury within switches



Electrical: lighting

Includes usage in fluorescent lamps

4% (107) (global)

none (111)

not applicable

Global values are for 2005


Measuring and control devices

Used mainly in thermometers and thermostats

9% (107) (global)


galinstan (an alloy of gallium, indium, and tin) (1)

exemplary

Global values are for 2005


Other

Includes use in fungicides, chemicals, pigments, and pesticides

8% (107) (global)

not applicable

not applicable

Global values are for 2005

Tl

Electronics

Used in gamma radiation detection equipment, communications equipment, cardiovascular imaging, and in thallium-impregnated glass used as coverings on electronic devices (e.g., semiconductors and capacitors)

90% (informed estimate) (global)

none

not applicable

Detailed, quantitative end-uses of thallium are not available, making it intractable to select a single primary substitute

Other

Includes chemical uses (e.g., synthesis of organic compounds) and in alloys to improve corrosion resistance (e.g., in switches)

10% (informed estimate) (global)

not applicable

not applicable

Detailed, quantitative end-uses of thallium are not available, making it intractable to select a single primary substitute

Pb

Batteries

Used in lead-acid batteries for back-up power (e.g., in hospitals and weapons systems), in transportation vehicles, and to assist electric utilities in shifting loads among grids

80% (112) (global)

none

not applicable




Other

Includes use in ammunition, sheet/pipes, pigments, and cable sheathing

20% (112) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




Bi

Fusible alloys, solders, and ammunition cartridges

Includes use in solders, wires, safety fuses, and molded products

35% (113) (global)

lead

good

Global values are for 2006


Metallurgical additives

Used in automobiles, planes, grip tubes, tools, and punches


35% (113) (global)

lead (73)

adequate

Global values are for 2006


Pharmaceuticals and chemicals

Includes use in antacids

28% (113) (global)

magnesium compounds (73)

good

Global values are for 2006


Other

For example, used in pigments, dentistry, glass, enameled ceramics, and plastic lenses

2% (113) (global)

not applicable

not applicable

Global values are for 2006


Th

Welding electrodes

Used in thoriated tungsten electrodes


65% (global)


cerium

good

Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996

Lighting

Solution of thorium and cerium nitrates used to produce gas mantles

20% (114) (global)


yttrium compounds (1)

good

Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996

Refractory

Used in high temperature crucibles for melting pure, carbon-sensitive metals at 2300℃

14% (114) (global)


yttrium oxide (115)

exemplary

Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996

Nuclear applications

Behaves as a breeder, absorbing neutrons and forming uranium-233

1% (114) (global)


none

not applicable

Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996

U

Nuclear energy

Used as a nuclear fuel in power station reactors

100% (global)


thorium

adequate

Assumed that nuclear energy is the only significant end-use of uranium



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