Metal Application



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Used in solar cells, automobile taillights, cameras, flashlights, cellular telephone display screens, televisions, and traffic signals

15% (1) (global)


silicon (1)

good




Other

Includes phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy

5% (1) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




As

Wood preservation and pesticides

Used in wood preservatives and agricultural chemicals

68% (global)


copper (39)

good

Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)

Semiconductor devices

Used in light-emitting diodes, displays, lasers, microwave devices, solar cells, and integrated circuits

7% (global)


silicon (41)

good

Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)

Copper alloys

Used in industrial plant piping, radiators, and brass

7% (global)

antimony (39)

good

Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)

Other

Used as a fining agent in the glass industry, as a decolorizing agent, in ceramics, and in pharmaceuticals

18% (global)


not applicable

not applicable

Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)

Se

Glass manufacturing

Used to decolorize container and other glass, to reduce solar heat transmission in architectural plate glass, and to produce red color in plastics, ceramics, and glass (1)

40% (42) (global)


cerium oxide (36)

good




Metallurgy

Used to improve machinability of copper, lead, and steel alloys (1)

25% (42) (global)

bismuth (36)

good




Agriculture

Serves as a micronutrient

15% (42) (global)

none

not applicable




Chemical and pigments

Used in plastics, inks, paints, catalysts in chemical reactions, and the preparation of organic compounds and rubber

10% (42) (global)


tellurium (36)

good




Electronics

Used in photocopiers, electrical rectifiers, and solar cells

10% (42) (global)

silicon (36)

good



Sr

Pyrotechnics and signals

Used mainly in fireworks and flares

30% (global)

none (1, 43)

not applicable

Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)

Ferrite ceramic magnets

Used mainly in toys, electronics, and windshield wipers

30% (global)


barium (1)

adequate

Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)

Master alloys


Used mainly as an additive to aluminum-silicon alloys

10% (global)


sodium (44)

adequate

Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)

Pigments and fillers


For example, in phosphorescent pigments

10% (global)


barium (1)

poor

Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)

Electrolytic production of zinc

Used to produce high purity zinc

10% (global)


barium (45)

adequate

Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)

Other

Includes use in toothpaste (46) and fluorescent lamps

10% (global)


not applicable

not applicable

Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)

Y

Phosphors

Used in flat-panel displays, x-ray intensifying screens, and temperature sensors

54% (47) (global)


none (48)

not applicable




Ceramics

Y-stabilized zirconia (zirconium oxide) used in refractories and as jet turbine blade and nozzle coatings

32% (47) (global)


calcium

poor




Other

Includes electronics, heating elements, and superalloys uses

14% (47) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




Zr

Ceramics

Milled or micronized zircon is used as an opacifier for tile glazes and porcelain enamels

64% (39, 49) (global)

alumina (1)

adequate




Refractory

Used in the glass industry and steel industry (e.g., in ladles and continuous casting nozzles)

18% (39, 49) (global)

alumina spinels (1)

adequate




Foundry molds

Used as a basic mold material and facing on other mold materials

14% (39, 49) (global)

chromite (50)

poor (50)




Other

Used in television glass (due to its x-ray absorption properties and ability to toughen the glass), in alloys, as structural parts in the core of water moderated nuclear reactors, in catalysts, and in jewelry

4% (39, 49) (global)


not applicable

not applicable




Nb

Construction

Used in heavy engineering and infrastructure applications

29% (51) (global)


vanadium (52)

good




Transportation

Used in various automobile parts

24% (51) (global)


vanadium (52)

good




Oil and gas industry

Used in oil and gas pipelines, and in the petrochemical sector

24% (51) (global)


vanadium (52)

good




Stainless steel

Includes use in exhaust systems in automobiles, in heat resistant steel in the petrochemical industry, and in power plants

10% (51) (global)


tantalum

adequate




Niobium metal and alloys

Used in jet engines, land-based turbines, high energy particle accelerators, magnetic resonance imaging, and niobium oxide capacitors

5% (51) (global)


molybdenum

adequate




Other

Includes use in drill pipes, well casings, and cutting tools

8% (51) (global)

not applicable

not applicable




Mo

Constructional engineering steels

Used in oil and gas exploration (pipings and refineries), heavy machinery, transportation (e.g., automotive for powertrain systems, off-road vehicles, and ships), power generation, and chemical and petrochemical machinery (e.g., tanks)

35% (53) (global)


molybdenum-free constructional engineering steels

adequate

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Stainless steel

Used in chemical and petrochemical machinery, building and construction, food processing, pulp and paper industry, oil and gas exploration (piping), and pollution control in power generation

25% (53) (global)


molybdenum-free stainless steels

adequate (32)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Tool and high speed steel


Used in metal processing, automotive (powertrain and exhaust systems), machining tools, and consumer goods (e.g., drills)

11% (53) (global)


molybdenum-free tool and high speed steel

adequate

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Chemicals

Used as catalysts in the petrochemical industry (desulphurization), pigments, coatings, and lubricants

10% (53) (global)


none

not applicable

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Cast iron

Used in transportation (including automotive exhaust systems), heavy machinery, and metal processing

8% (53) (global)


molybdenum-free cast iron

adequate

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Superalloys

Used in aerospace, chemical and petrochemical machinery, oil and gas, and pollution control in power generation

6% (53) (global)


niobium

poor

Tungsten is another likely substitute in superalloys

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

See comments about nickel use in aerospace


Molybdenum metal

Used in automotive, electronics, and chemical and petrochemical applications

6% (53) (global)

none

not applicable

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding

Ru

Electrical

Used in thick film pastes, perpendicular magnetic recording technology for computer hard disks, and electroplated reed contacts

59% (global) (54)


iridium

adequate

Substitute refers to oxides of iridium that can substitute for oxides of ruthenium in thick film resistors pastes (55)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Chemical

Used as process catalysts for a number of chemical processes, including synthesis of ammonia

20% (global) (54)


magnetite

adequate

Substitute refers to the magnetite catalyst used in the majority of ammonia synthesis plants (56)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Electrochemical

Coating of dimensionally stable anodes used by the chlor-alkali industry

14% (global) (54)


iridium

adequate

Substitute refers to iridium-based coatings as an alternative to ruthenium-coated anodes used in the chlor-alkali industry (56)

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Other

Used as an alloying agent in various applications

8% (global) (54)


not applicable

not applicable

Other precious metals can presumably be used in most of these other applications

Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding



Rh

Autocatalyst

Used as a catalyst to control vehicle NOx emissions

86% (54) (global)


none

not applicable

Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling

No substitutes have been identified for rhodium for the control of gasoline-power vehicle NOx emissions (57)



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