Notes on African-American History Since 1900
What are the underlying reasons this could take place
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- The Conflict Between Civil Liberties, Human Rights and National Security, Post September 11
- H.R. 3162: Uniting and strengthening America by providing the appropriate tools required to intercept and obstruct terrorism in the brief
- 2005 Challenges Short Term Strategies and Objectives of the Tenth Anniversary of the Million Man March: The Five Point Program
What are the underlying reasons this could take place? One is legal disenfranchisement. State law varies widely when it comes to crime and voting. According to the group, Human Rights Watch currently 3.9 million Americans are disenfranchised. Forty-six states deny prisoners the right to vote. In 32 states felons on parole aren't allowed to vote, in 29 states someone on probation isn't allowed to vote and in 10 states (mostly southern) impose a lifetime ban on convicted felons. Such is the case for Florida and Alabama where 31 percent of African American males are disenfranchised for life.921 In four states (Maine, Massachusetts, Utah and Vermont) felons in prison are allowed to vote. Thus in the deciding state of Florida over 361,681 African-American males were legally disenfranchised in the November 2000 election. Two and very important, was the fact according the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights founded in 1957; investigating voting irregularities during the 2000 presidential election in Florida stated widespread voter disenfranchisement and clear violations of the Voting Rights Act disenfranchising African-American voters was the central feature in the outcome of the Florida election. The U.S. Commission on Civil Rights collected more than 30 hours of testimony from more than 100 witnesses – all taken under oath and reviewed more than 118,000 pages of pertinent documents. It subpoenaed a cross section of witnesses including Florida Governor Jeb Bush, Florida Secretary of State, Katherine Hams, members of Governor Bush's Select Task Force on Election Reforms and Florida's Attorney General. It is impossible to determine the total number of voters who were turned away from the polls or deprived of their right to vote. It is clear that the 2000 presidential election generated a large number of complaints about voting irregularities in Florida. The Florida attorney general's office alone received more than 3,600 allegations 2,600 complaints and 1,000 letters. In addition, both the Democratic and Republican parties received many complaints from Floridians who either could not vote or experienced difficulty when attempting to vote.922 The disenfranchisement of Florida's votes fell most harshly on the shoulders of African-American voters. The magnitude of the impact can be seen from any of several perspectives: Statewide, based upon county-level statistical estimates, African-American voters were nearly 10 times more likely than non-black voters to have their ballots rejected. Estimates indicated that approximately 14.4 percent of Florida's African-American voters cast ballots that were rejected. This compares with approximately 1.6 percent of non-black Florida voters who did not have their presidential votes recorded. Statistical analysis shows that the disparity in ballot spoilage rates between black and non-black voters is not the result of education or literacy differences. This conclusion is supported by Governor Jeb Bush's Select Task Force on Election Reforms, which found that error rates stemming from uneducated, uninformed, or disinterested voters account for less than 1 percent of the problems. Approximately 11 percent of Florida voters were African-American; however, African-Americans cast about 54 percent of the 180,000 spoiled ballots in Florida during the November 2000 election based on estimates derived from county-level data. These statewide estimates where corroborated by the results in several counties based on actual precinct data. Poor counties, particularly those with large minority populations, were more likely to possess voting systems with higher spoilage rates than the more affluent counties with significant white populations. There is a high correlation between counties and precincts with a high percentage of African American voters and the percentage of spoiled ballots, that is, ballots cast but not counted. Nine of the 10 counties with the highest percentage of African American voters had spoilage rates above the Florida average. Of the 10 counties with the highest percentage of white voters, only two counties had spoilage rates above the state average. Gadsden County, with the highest rate of spoiled ballots, also had the highest percentage of African American voters. Where precinct data were available, the data show that 83 of the 100 precincts with the highest numbers of disqualified ballots are black-majority precincts. Three, the stopping of the recount and the partisan voting of the U.S. Supreme Court determined the outcome of the election. Because Bush's lead over Gore in the initial count was less than one-tenth of one percent, Florida law mandated an automatic recount. With the margin between Bush and Gore down to 537 votes, the election hinged on whether or not the undervotes (ballots that showed no vote for president) would be examined by hand or not. The Gore campaign pointed out that in counties that used punch-cared systems (such as Palm Beach, Miami-Dade, and Broward) that 1.5 percent of the ballots showed no presidential vote whereas only 0.3 percent of the ballots in counties that used scantrons were recorded as blank. The reason offered for this difference was that some people do not punch holes all the way through the card, thereby not fully removing the indentation – the now-famous "chads". It just so happened that the counties that used punch cards favored Gore than Bush. The Bush campaign realized this and opposed any manual recount. They argued that such a review of the ballots was inherently arbitrary and subject to manipulation and differing standards.923 Bush's lead over Gore had dwindled to less than 200 votes and further recounting would have most likely erased his lead entirely.924 The Florida Supreme Court ultimately ruled in favor of Gore's request to have any ballots that did not register a vote for president recounted by hand. The U.S. Supreme Court in Bush v Gore (2000) overruled the Florida Supreme Court and held that although a recount was legal, the same (and more precise) standards for evaluating ballots would have to be applied in all counties. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that there was not enough time to recount all the ballots in an orderly fashion by the time the electors were to vote on December 12. After the court ruled 5-4 (on partisan lines) against a vote recount in Florida, Justice John Paul Stevens, in a sharply worded dissent wrote: "Although we may never know with complete certainty the identity of this year's presidential election, the identity of the loser is perfectly clear. It is the nation's confidences in the judge as an impartial guardian of the law". Jesse Jackson said: "To me the issue, one, is the court so political that its mind was already made up; that's a real question. Justice Scalia's son is a lawyer who works for Bush, and Justice Thomas's wife is recruiting staff members for Bush who works for the Heritage Foundation. I had hoped that the Court could rise above the political partisanship".925 The fourth factor was the third party candidate of the Green Party, Ralph Nader. Although Nader's support dropped from 5 percent in some pre-election polls to about 2.7 percent on election-day, it seemed likely that he cost Gore the election in some states. In Florida, Nader received over 97,000 votes or nearly 200 times the 537-vote margin between Bush and Gore.926 With such results it seems like this is a good time to seek a constitutional amendment to provide for direct election of the president. The Conflict Between Civil Liberties, Human Rights and National Security, Post September 11th On September 11, 2001, the World Trade Center and the Pentagon were attacked. Three days later, on September 14th, Congress passed a resolution. This law allowed President George W. Bush to use, “all necessary and appropriate force against anyone associated in the terrorist attacks”. On October 26th, the U.S. Congress passed, and President Bush signed into law, the USA Patriot Act, also known as H.R. 3162. Its purpose is to intercept and obstruct terrorism. Essentially, America is at war with a relatively undefined enemy. Nonetheless, this enemy is generally referred to as Arab and Muslim terrorist organizations. America often reduces the strength of its civil liberties, to the point of arguably infringing on the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights, which form the basis of American society. This reduction of civil liberties occurs when America is either in the midst of a declared war, under attack, or when it feels as though its “vital interests” are threatened. In terms of U.S. foreign policy, the present oil and energy interests of the U.S. Government form the primary catalyst for the War on Terrorism. As it applies to U.S. domestic policy, the U.S. Government has used the War on Terrorism as an excuse to advance and strengthen the authority of the executive branch of government. The combined executive powers of the U.S. Attorney General, John Ashcroft, Homeland Security Chief, Tom Ridge, Immigration and Naturalization Service Commissioner, James W. Ziglar, Secretary of State, Colin Powell, and President Bush, have worked to control internal dissent. What does Bill H.R. 3162: Uniting and strengthening America by providing the appropriate tools required to intercept and obstruct terrorism in the brief, say and have the ability to do? The Act cuts back on Constitutional Checks and Balances It give sweeping new powers of detention and surveillance to the executive branch of government and law enforcement agencies, and deprives the courts of meaningful judicial oversight to ensure that the law enforcement powers are not being abused. It gives the Secretary of State the authority to designate any group, foreign or domestic, as a terrorist organization, an authority that is not subject to review. It creates a broad new crime of “domestic terrorism” and expands the range of crimes defined as “terrorist offenses” and the penalties attached to them. It permits investigations based on lawful First Amendment activity, if that activity can be tied somehow to intelligence purposes. It undermines the privacy protections of the Fourth Amendment, and expands the ability of the government to spy through wiretaps, computer surveillance, access to medical, financial, business and educational records, and secret searches of homes and offices. It undermines fair due process procedures granted by the Constitution, extended to non-citizens in over a century of U.S. Supreme Court rulings, by permitting the government to detain non-citizens indefinitely, even if they have never been convicted of a crime. What Do the First and Fourth Amendments Say? The First Amendment says: “Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and the petition of Government for the redress of grievances”. The Fourth Amendment says: “The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly in the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.” What the Act Means for Citizens and Non-citizens The Act eliminates much of the judicial oversight established in the 1970s, after revelations that the U.S. Government and the F.B.I. were spying on over a half million Americans during and after the McCarthy era, and widely opens the door to new possibilities of abuse. Law enforcement officials no longer are tied by the rules of criminal law before conducting searches in criminal cases. People can be subjected to roving wiretaps, or have their homes and offices secretly searched in criminal investigations without a demonstration of “probable cause” of a crime. Surveillance can follow a targeted individual to any computer or telephone he or she might use, based on a single warrant that can be used anywhere in the United States. Internet communications of Americans can be spied on, if law enforcement agents tell a judge that this surveillance is “relevant” to an ongoing criminal investigation. The C.I.A. and the F.B.I. can monitor computers and phones without having to demonstrate use by a suspect, or a target of a court order. If the F.B.I. certifies to a court that it needs this information to conduct an “intelligence” investigation, it can obtain access to sensitive educational, medical, financial, mental health, and other personal records. Information collected in formerly secret grand jury hearings, or through wiretaps in a criminal case, can be disclosed to intelligence agencies, if that information is seen as “foreign intelligence information,” including any information that “relates” to the National Defense or Security, or the conduct of foreign affairs. The Act provides for broad sharing of information among the F.B.I., C.I.A., I.N.S., Secret Service and National Security Agency. Americans engaged in civil disobedience or another form of protest activity might be charged with “domestic terrorism” if violence erupts. They may have to provide DNA samples if convicted of “any crime of violence.” The Attorney General may submit a written application to a court for an order requiring an educational institution to give access to formerly protected records and student data of both foreign and American students. The court will issue the order based on mere certification that the records are needed for an ongoing investigation. Some of the expanded surveillance powers “sunset” after four years, and will expire on December 31, 2005, unless re-authorized by Congress. Others will not. Because the Act provides for only very limited reporting requirements, it is difficult to see how Congress will evaluate whether the “sunset” provisions should be renewed in four years’ time. While the USA Patriot Act promises to strengthen domestic security during a time of the declared War on Terrorism, the Act also repeals the freedoms guaranteed to all Americans outlined in the First and Fourth Amendments. Such rights infringement at home allows the executive branch to fulfill its foreign policy agenda, by stifling the voices of dissent at home. What has happened since the USA Patriot Act was Passed? The Justice Department released a list of 5,000 foreign men wanted for questioning. Not because of any evidence of wrongdoing, but because they fit a profile. Over 15,000 detainees are being held since September 11th. Academic freedom is under attack. Nationwide, university professors have been criticized, and even fired, for statements they have made since September 11th. The Foundation for Individual Rights and Education in Philadelphia is legally representing more than a dozen professors, who have said college officials, and even students, have sought to silence them since the terrorist attacks. Dr. Sami Al-Arian, Computer Sciences professor, was fired from the University of South Florida, on May 10, 2002 and Professor Richard Berthold was fired from the University of New Mexico, December 10, 2001. Has this happened before in America? Yes. Briefly, starting in 1918, the U.S. Army sought to limit antiwar sentiment and anti-lynching activity in the African American community. After World War I, in 1919, the F.B.I. and the I.N.S. raided Russian-American communities and deported 249 immigrant workers. In 1920, the F.B.I. and I.N.S. staged nighttime raids in 33 cities against the Communist Party and the Communist Labor Party, which led to the rounding up of over 3,000 people and the deportation of 760 in the infamous Palmer Raids. Also in the 1920s, the F.B.I. infiltrated the U.N.I.A., the African Blood Brotherhood, stealing documents and creating havoc. Recently, related documents show that the F.B.I. secretly targeted Marcus Garvey. Garvey was imprisoned, and later exiled. On December 7, 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor (the United States). On February 20, 1942, Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Executive Order 9066 passed in Congress, giving the President and the military authority to evacuate all people of Japanese descent. On March 30, 1942, one hundred twenty thousand Japanese-Americans began to be placed in Internment (Concentration) Camps. In the 1950s, notable historians such as W.E.B. DuBois were arrested as agents of a foreign power. Both DuBois, and Paul Robeson, who were leaders of the Council of African Affairs, were subpoenaed by the House of Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Robeson’s salary is reported to have dropped from $100,000 to $1,000 in one year. He was forced to tour Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union in order to survive economically. In the late 1950s and 1960s, J. Edgar Hoover and the F.B.I. harassed Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. They, along with Stokely Carmichael, H. Rap Brown and myself, were targeted for destruction. Thus, history shows that during the World War I, World War II, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War, the United States Government strengthens its foreign military policy by silencing the voices of dissent at home with policies that directly affect the nation’s civil liberties. The present War on terrorism, and the signing of the USA Patriot Act, shows that history is repeating itself again. 2001 A World Conference on Racism in Durban, South Africa was convened where slavery and continual racism were declared crimes against humanity. Europe, the United States and Israel were indicted. This event was purposely overshadowed by 9/11. 2004 The Philadelphia Board of Education announced it would make African-American Studies mandatory and inclusive in its curriculum by 2009. The Million Workers March was called in response to the attacks on working families and to the millions of jobs that were lost during the Bush administration. The “Real Clarence Thomas”, a leader of the International Longshore Workers Union Local 10 based in San Francisco, California was a co-chair of the march. 2005 Challenges Short Term Strategies and Objectives of the Tenth Anniversary of the Million Man March: The Five Point Program Prelude: One of the purposed of the Tenth Anniversary of the Million Man March will be to impress upon the President of the United States of America, the Senate and the House of Representatives the importance of them addressing and passing H. R. 40, the John Conyers Bill. It asks Congress to acknowledge the fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality and inhumanity of slavery in the 13 colonies and the United States between 1619 and 1965, to establish a commission to examine the institution of slavery, subsequent de jure and de facto racial and economic discrimination against African Americans, the impact of these forces on living African Americans, to make recommendations to the Congress for appropriate remedies, and for other purposes.927 Brothers and sisters, we know this may be a long-term goal, but it is one that may set the direction for the next generation of youth to achieve, until they become imbued with the spirit to create a Reparations Action Movement (RAM). What can be done now? Sister Alderman Dorothy Tillman of Chicago’s City Council in 2002 required companies that do business with the city to research their history to determine any links to slavery. As a result, J. P. Morgan and Chase & Company are in the process of entering into partial reparations’ settlements (Jet, February 7, 2005, p. 14). It is important that we approach our councilpersons and ask them to do the same, as well as our senators and legislators on the state level. In addition we need to spread the word to get every city council in every state to pass a similar ordinance. One of our first steps should be to establish a legal committee to do research on companies doing business in our cities and across our states. When we find firms who had links to slavery we should send a delegation to them to demand that they pay reparations. If they refuse, we should engage in selective boycotts of these firms, engage in creative social disorder (dislocation) and demonstrate against these firms. As we approach the 10th Anniversary of the Million Man March, we should consider what concretely we could demand that can be immediately implemented. As of 2003, African American men made 73% of the median income of white men. African American women made 92% of white women’s median income, which is lower than white men, but higher than that of African American men. According to the Congressional Black Caucus’ Agenda for the 109th (2005) Congress, which focused on employment and economic security, unemployment rates for African Americans are consistently almost double the rates for white (Caucasian) Americans. The median weekly earnings of full-time African American workers is consistently over $130.00 less than white workers who are similarly educated and situated. The poverty rate for African Americans is almost double the national poverty rate, 24% vs. 12.5%, and more than triple, 33% vs. 9%, for children under the age of 18. Much of what is being reported came of the Concerned Brothers Retreat, held Saturday, January 22, 2005 at Camp Forbes. One: Civilian Conservation Corps To be funded by state, city and national governments and funds from private businesses, to pay the African American unemployed, semi-employed and under-paid employed, monies to go to school for job training and apprenticeship programs in skilled trades and the latest technological fields (free of charge), while they are put to work rebuilding the infrastructure and other areas (housing, business, public buildings) of the cities and rural areas, as well as funding for continuing education. This was called Urban Conservation Corps initially, but was later changed to Civilian Conservation Corps in order to reflect the fact that while the majority of our people lived in cities many also lived in rural areas. It was initiated in the 1930s during the Depression, and African Americans are currently in a Depression. While the present administration may not implement it, by demanding it we can put the project on the political agenda so that it can be addressed in the 2008 presidential elections. Within the five-point program, we have a responsibility to attempt to put into action a collective unity plan, applying a policy of self-reliance or self-help to begin to lay the groundwork for solving some of our problems. The Congressional Black Caucus, in its agenda addressing the question of “closing the achievement and opportunity gaps in education”, state that in 2003, thirty-nine percent of African American fourth grade students read at or above a basic reading level, compared to 74% of white fourth graders. Thirty-nine percent of African American eighth grade students performed at or above a basic math level, compared to 79% of white eighth graders, and high school completion rates are 83.7% for African Americans and 91.8% for whites. Bachelor degree recipients are 16.4% for African Americans and 31.7% for whites, and the digital divide is that 41.3% of African Americans are capable of accessing the Internet, compared to 61.5% of whites. Various African American scholars and leaders, including psychologists, have long contended that the problem of low achievement in school is due to low self-esteem and lack of self-confidence, that in most cases, is caused by negative images within the media, religious, cultural, social and educational superstructure of a white racist, capitalist, social system. African American youth are bombarded by a Euro-centric mis-education; one based on lies and an anti-African ethos. This educational genocide mentally kills the positive self-initiative of the African American child. Two: African Centered Education We need an African centered education. We need to learn of the great leaders (men and women) who have struggled and given their lives to make a better future for us, and our youth. African Americans need to be taught African and African American history from grades K-12 and throughout college. Being in the majority in Cleveland, and other major cities across the country, we should demand that an African and African American (Africana) perspective and history be included in the teaching of every subject possible. While we do this, our educator/activists need to help the youth to establish African/African American history clubs in the Junior and Senior High schools, churches, mosques, and neighborhood centers. At the same time, we should form statewide coalitions to take petitions of registered voters across each state to petition our state legislators and state departments of education to follow the example of Maryland. Maryland’s Department of Education incorporated African American history into the curriculum of its public school system in 2004.928They were the first in the United States to do this. Three: Learning Centers We need to establish independent learning centers to teach math, history, science and languages from an Africana perspective. There should be two areas of discussion in these learning centers, youth issues and adult issues. Four: Economic and Political Development: Self-Reliance There are 228,852 African American residents in Cleveland; 94,500 African American households. The main issues for most African Americans in Cleveland are: High rates of unemployment (Cleveland is hard hit because Ohio had 18% manufacturing jobs, as opposed to 11% in other states. Most of the manufacturing jobs went overseas due to globalization, and firms employing unskilled or semiskilled labor have moved to the suburbs, for the most part, making it very difficult to obtain employment, due to lack of adequate transportation). Unwed parenthood Incarceration (see the Bracey Plan: a Strategic Spending Plan) Develop an African United Front. African Americans constitute 51 to 52% of the electorate in Cleveland. There is no reason why African Americans in Cleveland cannot elect one of their own to be Mayor, to address political and economic development issues for the majority of the electorate. We should have collective ongoing voter registration and voter education drives. We should become active in building strong ward organizations and youth leadership in each ward. We should become more active in political campaigns. We should make coalitions and alliances with others in the city, i.e. Hispanic, Arab, Asian and progressive whites. A single parent heads 63% of the African American families living in Cleveland; 40% of them live in poverty, with an average income of $24,747 and only 10% hold a bachelor’s, or higher, degree. Within this dynamic, African Americans have been programmed to support the suburban economic neo-colonialism of white businesses. In the Learning Centers an African American network of businesses can be established with the circulation of a contemporary African American business guide and conscious development of a supportive, self-reliant economy attempting to re-circulate the dollar inside the community as often as possible. Wherever possible, we should establish economic cooperatives. We can explore food co-ops, collective buying programs, food markets, collective gardening of empty lots, free medical clinics, dentists, car washes, television and radio programs, construction firms, solar, wind and alternative energy sources, as well as product marketing and advertising. Five: Family Planning Centers: What we have now is a generation or two of young (baby) mothers attempting to raise babies. As a result of the lack of knowledge about living a holistic lifestyle and raising children to become responsible adults, as well as being in need of a re-education themselves; many African American mothers and fathers are in desperate need of family planning from an African centric point of view. We need a new direction in crisis prevention/management; holistic nutrition (diet), budgeting, health care (hygiene), exercise, a holistic lifestyle dealing with needs rather than wants, the proper way to carry oneself with dignity and self-respect, (The African American personality). We have many conscious sisters and brothers in the community who can help with this. The Family Planning centers could be a part of the learning centers. We conclude presenting this as a rough sketch of a 5-point program.929 There was much struggle on the local levels for Minister Louis Farrakhan to present a tentative program and to broaden his perspective for the Millions More Movement march. Farrakhan did by inviting everyone, calling for a third party of the poor and demanding reparations for African-Americans Hurricane Katrina The country and the world were shocked when on August 29, 2005 Hurricane Katrina hit the Gulf Coast, drowning New Orleans and causing more than one billion dollars of property damage across broad swaths of Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas and Alabama. While the official count in the number of deaths was more than 1,600, the unofficial count was over 10,000. In New Orleans alone, nearly two hundred thousand homes were destroyed or rendered uninhabitable. Along the Mississippi Gulf Coast another seventy thousand homes were destroyed. Five million people were left with no power, and it may have been a month before all power was restored. What amazed people is that even though a Category 3 or 4 Hurricane was predicted to wipe out New Orleans since 2001, the U.S. federal government under the Bush Administration and its agency FEMA (the Federal Emergency Management Agency) failed miserably to adequately respond in saving lives and providing relief. Monies available for national disasters had been diverted to the war in Iraq and humanitarian aid was turned back. While those with cars could evacuate New Orleans, the African Americans and poor were left to drown. In short, the benign neglect became silent genocide. 400,000 people, 80% of the population evacuated in New Orleans on their own resources, and that of their families, churches and non-governmental agencies; and with no assistance from any branch of the U.S. government—federal, state or local, or the Red Cross. The Louisiana State police reported that 18,000 vehicles per hour were streaming out of the city and the surrounding areas. (Note: If this report is correct, then we estimate that it took at least 12 to 22 hours to evacuate 400,000 people. And this historic grassroots, mass movement has been and continues to be denounced or characterized by murderers, racists and fools, as chaos.) “The poor,” however, “were just left to fend for themselves,” said Rep. Jose Serrano of New York. On August 30, 2005, Katrina hit New Orleans, and later, as breaches in three places of the levee system on the Lake Pontchatrain side of New Orleans flooded 80% of the City, as was inevitable and predicted, 150,000 residents remained in the city. The vast majority of those who stayed were reported to have been unwilling or unable to leave because they did not have vehicles, money for gas and other transportation. Also, many residents were unable to travel because they were elderly or infirm; or had no place or family to go to, and no money to live on once they got there.930 The untold story of Hurricane Katrina and the disaster of New Orleans is the role that Blackwater Mercenaries deployed in New Orleans of forcibly turning back fleeing African Americans and poor people, who were left to die on the streets or who were murdered outright. Heavily armed paramilitary mercenaries from the Blackwater private security firm, infamous for their work in Iraq, were openly patrolling the streets of New Orleans. Some of the mercenaries said they had been “deputized” by the Governor of Louisiana, while others said they were under contract with the Department of Homeland Security and had been given authority to use lethal force. It may take years before the full story of the genocide of New Orleans is told. Directory: Documents -> Finder -> Black%20Liberation%20Disk -> Black%20Power! Documents -> The great global switch-off Documents -> Nonprofit grant application Documents -> The Truth about the Rwandan Genocide Documents -> Annual InStructional unit plan Documents -> Chaos equipment included Black%20Power! -> The Need (Importance) for Student Activism in the 21st Century Black%20Power! -> When and how I wrote toward black liberation part I and malcolm X and the black liberation movement Black%20Power! -> Notes on African-American History Since 1900 Download 3 Mb. Share with your friends:
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