Parental Attitudes towards Children’s Internet Use and Online Advertising in Hong Kong

Keywords: parental attitudes – children – Internet use – online advertising

Associate Professor

Department of Communication Studies

Hong Kong Baptist University

Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong

Tel: (852) 3411 7836 Fax: (852) 2339 7890

Email: karachan@hkbu.edu.hk
Fei Shen

M. Phil. Student

School of Communication

Hong Kong Baptist University

Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong

Tel: (852) 3411 5160 Fax: (852) 2339 7890

Email: 03414248@hkbu.edu.hk

Paper presented at the 2004 Third Annual Hawaii International Conference on Social Science

June 15-19, 2004


Abstract

The rocketing growth of new media technology, especially the Internet, brought up a “digital generation”, which both excites and worries their parents. However, parents’ perception and attitudes toward children’s Internet use has seldom been investigated, especially in countries with Asian culture background. Like their counterparts in western countries, Chinese parents hold both positive and negative attitudes toward children’s Internet use and online advertising. A survey of 367 Chinese parents was conducted to examine parental attitudes of their children’s Internet use and online advertising in November 2003 in Hong Kong. Eleven statements were used to measure parental attitudes toward children’s Internet use and five statements were used to measure their attitudes toward online advertising. A factor analysis was conducted to examine the dimensions of parental attitudes and a correlation analysis was conducted to investigate the relationship among parental attitudes, demographic factors and their computer and Internet literacy. Results showed that Chinese parents mostly worried that Internet use would hurt their children’s eyesight. They also concerned about the pornographic and violent content, and the chance to meet with immoral people online. Parents generally held negative attitudes toward online advertising. Parental attitudes varied among different demographic groups. Those parents with higher computer and Internet literacy were more likely to hold positive attitude toward Internet. The implications for public policy and for the design of the technology were discussed. (225 words)

Introduction

Hong Kong is a metropolitan region in Asia where Internet household penetration is one of the highest in the world at around 60 percent (Census and Statistics Department, 2003). Users are most likely to be younger and better educated. Among 10-14-year-olds, 90 percent reported using the Internet, a figure almost double (49%) that of adults between 35-44 years of age (Census and Statistics Department, 2002).

Although children seem to be mostly enjoying their digital experiences with the World Wide Web, there are dangers, both real and potential. According to the research literature, there are three categories of online danger (Turow, 1999; UCLA, 2001; Williams, 2002): (1) exposure to improper content, (2) the incidence of exploitative and dangerous contacts, and (3) issues of privacy, advertising and commercialism.

Corresponding to these dangers, parental concerns center on their children’s Internet use, particularly in relation to values, commercialism, privacy and, above all, sexual material (Livingstone, 2002). Pornography on the Internet has been especially troublesome. In late 2003, one research firm estimated "there were over 1.3 million sites serving up about 260 million pages of erotic content" (Legon, 2003).

Illegal downloads have also become a concern for parents, as various countries and organizations begin to crackdown on offenders. In early 2003, The Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) filed 532 lawsuits against individuals who shared songs using programs like Kazaa (Evangelista and Hoge, 2003). Some of the actual penalties and fines were listed in the millions of dollars (although most expect the suits will be settled for far less), and some of the defendants were as young as 14 years old (Levy, 2003).

Thus, the body of literature on parental concerns of children’s Internet use is growing. Although most of the published research has been conducted in western countries (Livingstone & Bober, 2003; Lenhart, Rainie & Lewis, 2001), the issue is increasingly global. The parent organization for the RIAA, the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) has filed suits against 247 individuals in Italy, Germany, Denmark, and Canada (Ma, 2004). An IFPI spokesperson in Hong Kong remarked that legal actions would be coming to Asia as well.

Parental concern about children’s use of media can reflect both personal and cultural differences. As a former British colony for one hundred fifty years, Hong Kong culture has been depicted as a combination of East and West. The Eastern emphasis on collectivism and filial piety has played an important role in the patterns of child training (Ho & Kang, 1984; Yang, 1989), as well as the Western emphasis on individualism and self-identity. Thus it is worthwhile to investigate parental concern about this issue, and link it to parents’ and children’s demographic characteristics within in a Chinese culture background.

It is suggested by previous research that parental attitudes toward the Internet are not stratified by education or income but rather depend on prior experience with the Internet (Lohr & Meyer, 1999). This evidence suggests that the “digital divide” is an influential independent variable, reflecting parents’ proficiency and knowledge of computers and the Internet. This influence is linked to parental notions about positive and negative attitudes toward children’s Internet use. Based on these concerns, a number of research questions are posed. First, this study seeks to establish cross-cultural comparisons between East and West regarding perceived danger.

RQ1: Do parental attitudes in Hong Kong reflect similar concern areas of Internet danger, namely, harm, immoral, and edutainment as those being reported in the Western societies?

This question will address whether the fears or dangers associated with the Internet transcend cultural differences, and reflect aspects of the universal human condition. A second research area would be to generate a predictive model for understanding the interaction between various independent variables and parental attitudes toward the Internet, expressed as:

RQ2: What are the factors that influence parental attitudes toward the Internet?

A third area of inquiry is to examine differences within groups of parents to identify interaction effects. For example, the variable of age may reveal significant differences. Younger parents and those with less experienced in computer and internet use may indicate greater concern or fear for their children's safety than parents who are older and more experienced. In other words:

H1: Younger parents will be more concerned about their children than older parents.

Rationale: Younger parents tend to be more concerned about making mistakes; older parents tend to be more reflective and even more permissive (especially in multiple-child families).

Finally, in terms of the severity of the dangers online, parents will probably have some concerns that outweigh others. We expected that the greatest concern would be for those dangers involving physical and emotional harm to children, in contrast to those involving things or possessions. In other words:

H2: Sexual and violent content will be more of a concern to parents than illegal downloads.

Methodology

Sample

This study used a non-probability sample for data collection. From October to November 2003, students of a public university in Hong Kong distributed a structured, close-ended paper questionnaire in Chinese through personal contacts to friends with children 6-19 years old. A total of 367 questionnaires were distributed and collected from Hong Kong Chinese parents with children (children being defined as between the ages of 6-19). Any questionnaire collected that had less than half of the questions completed was considered unusable. Also, respondents who did not have a child within the specified age range were deemed unusable. This resulted in a total of 354 usable questionnaires and a response rate of 96 per cent.

[TABLE 1 ABOUT HERE]

Two thirds of the samples were mothers and the reminding one third were fathers. About eighty percent of the respondents were aged 30-49 and more than eighty percent had at least secondary school education. The median household income of the sample was HKD$20,000 per month (around US$ 32,000 annually), which was marginally higher than the official median household income in Hong Kong (around US $28,800 annually)(Census and Statistics Department, 2001).

Considering that using the Internet involves higher degrees of intellectual and physical maturity, the target population for the study was parents with children aged between 6-19 years. Regardless of whether additional children were out of this age range, responses were included as long as a child fell within the specified range.

The questionnaire was based on a previous research on family communication and parental mediation of television use in Mainland China (Chan & McNeal, 2002). The draft questionnaire was pre-tested with five parents and the wordings were revised to fit the Hong Kong context. These Likert scale items (5 points; 1= strongly disagree, 5= strongly agree) were used to measure parental attitudes and their self-reported computer and Internet literacy. Demographic variables including gender, age, education, occupation, household income, number and age range of children in the family were collected.

Measures

Parental attitudes toward the Internet were measured by eleven statements, of which two were positive items and nine were negative ones. Negative statements reflected parental concerns about potential harm that might arise from Internet use. These concerns included the impact on children's academic performance, exposure to improper content such as pornography or violence, downloading pirated content, online gambling and encountering bad people online. The two positive statements reflected benefits derived from the Internet in terms of information and entertainment. Respondents were also asked to rate in a five-point scale (1= strongly disagree, 5= strongly agree) their own computer and Internet literacy, using two statements. These two items were subjected to reliability analysis and produced a reliability coefficient of α=.95.

Results

Descriptive findings

Overall, Hong Kong parents recognize there are positive and negative aspects to the world of the Internet.

[TABLE 2 ABOUT HERE]

The item indicating greatest concern was “Spending a lot of time online will hurt children’s eyesight.” More than 90 percent of the parents reported they were worried about this occurrence. The second highest concern was regarding pornographic material online. Three-quarter (76 per cent) of the sample worried about sexual content in Internet. Conversely, the positive aspect of finding valuable information online was endorsed by 74 percent of the parents. The items receiving the lowest degree of concern was online gambling and illegal downloading. Result of pair-wise t-test indicated that Hong Kong parents’ worry about online pornography was higher than worry about children’s illegal download (t=13.3, df=353, p<0.001). Also, Hong Kong parents’ worry about the violent content was higher than worry about children’s illegal download (t=11.3,df=353, p<0.001). As a result, H2 was supported

Factor Analysis

A principal components factor analysis was employed, resulting in three significant identifiable factors. One item, “Indulging in the Internet will lessen the interpersonal communication of the child” did not load on any factor and was removed from analysis. Subsequent factor analysis identified three factors accounting for 61 percent of overall sample variance.

[TABLE 3 ABOUT HERE]

Three factors were labeled as “Harm”, “Illegal issues”, and “Edutainment” respectively. The factor “Harm” consisted of five items. These items were “chance of meet immoral strangers when chatting”, “affect children’s study”, “porn content”, “violent content” and “eyesight hurt”. The second factor labeled “Illegal issues” consisted of three items, namely, “pirate files”, “copyright problems” and “gambling”. The third factor “Edutainment” consisted of two items. These two statements reflected the perceived information and entertainment function of the Internet.

The items were aggregated into three indices reflecting concerns in these three areas.

Correlation analyses

The bivariate correlation between parental attitudes toward children’s Internet use and demographic factors identified some significant relationships, as presented in Table 4.

[TABLE 4 ABOUT HERE]

The age of the parent was negatively linked with Edutainment (r=-.10, p< .01). Older parents were less likely to appreciate the benefits of Internet use of their children. Age of the parent had no significant correlation with perceived “Harm” and “Illegal issues”. In other words, younger parents and older parents were equally concerned about their children’s safety in Internet use. As a result, H1 was not supported.

The most influential variable on parental attitude toward children’s Internet use was parents’ computer and Internet literacy. This variable was significantly related to all three attitudes factors. The relationship was negative regarding Harm (r= -.13, p<. 01), and positive with Illegal issue (r= .15, p< .001), and Edutainment (r= .23, p< .001).

Parents with higher level of computer and internet literacy were more likely to concern about illegal issues, more likely to appreciate the benefits of Internet to the children, and less worry about harmful consequences of Internet. Education level was positively related with Illegal issue (r=. 13, p<. 01) and Edutainment (r= .16, p<. 001). Significant negative correlations were revealed for child’s age and Harm (r= -.11, p<. 01) and illegal issue (r= -.11, p<. 01). Parents with younger children demonstrated greater worry about harmful effect as well as illegal issue. Household income was correlated with Illegal issue positively (r=. 12, p<. 01).

Discussion & Conclusion

This study investigated parental attitudes toward the Internet as a new media technology that their children commonly use. The data revealed that Chinese parents have mixed and contradictory feelings toward the Internet. These results mirror the findings of Pew Internet & American Life Project (Lenhart et al., 2001), and suggest the Internet is a microcosm of the struggle faced by parents. The pressure to let children "find their way in the world" is directly at odds with the parental instinct to protect them from harm. These contradictory pressures can lead to externalized conflict between the parents and children (Livingstone & Bober, 2003), as the parents struggle between holding on and letting go.

The positive educational value of the Internet is widely known, and it is an important medium for self-learning and development (Kerawalla & Crook, 2002). The more familiar parents are with this aspect, the greater the struggle with how to have their children avoid the dangers.

This study suggests that Chinese parents tend to focus on children’s education and health. They prefer protection through restrictions on their children’s Internet use rather than mediation (Chan, Shen & Wilkinson, 2004). The data show they are most concerned with their children’s physical health, followed by mental health, and academic performance. Hong Kong Chinese parents were generally more worried about the potential harm incurred through the Internet than their counterparts in Western countries. Compared with 45 percent reported by Lenhart et al. (2001), this study found more parents were worried that Internet will expose their children to dangerous and harmful things. For example, regarding meeting strangers online, 57 percent of Chinese respondents expressed worry, versus 48 percent of US parents (Lenhart et al., 2001). In terms of seeing the Internet as a distraction of study, Chinese and US parents showed similar level of concern, 67 percent in the current study vs. 66 percent (Lenhart et al., 2001).

Regarding illegal behaviors, such as downloading material without paying for it, Chinese parents scored this concern relatively low. Reasonable explanations could be that enforcement has not been an issue in Asia until recently, and the widespread nature of this activity reduces the perceived seriousness of the offense. This issue will undoubtedly change as enforcement becomes more vigorous.

Computer and Internet literacy played a crucial role in predicting parental attitudes. Wired parents are less worried about the impact of the Internet on their children than parents who do not have Internet access (Lenhart et al., 2001; Symantec, 2001). However, previous research only treated parental concerns as a whole variable without dividing it into different dimensions, which prevents exploring into the links between different dimensions of parental concerns and demographic factors.

The current study found that the more knowledge of computers and the Internet that the parents held, the more concern they paid to copyright and online gambling. This finding indicates that parents who are more knowledgeable in the use of the Internet and computers would also be most aware of the social developmental issues involving Internet use. If the parents were educated and aware of these issues, they tended to not simply focus on the "scary Internet" image. Instead, they tended to watch for less publicized but just as serious online concerns.

When parents were more computer/WWW-literate, they were also relatively less fearful about the “harmful” elements related to online use. Compared to those parents without a clear mental map of the Internet, these parents were more confident and capable of exerting more guidance (Chan, Shen & Wilkinson, 2004). Similar explanations have been proposed (Lenhart et al., 2001), that online-savvy parents tend to be more vigilant in monitoring what their children do on the Internet, as well as tend to be more confident that their children can avoid trouble. Parents with high computer and Internet literacy would endorse the information and entertainment functions of Internet much more, compared with those with relatively lower levels of Internet-literacy.

Household income was a weak predictor of parental attitudes, and correlated only with “Illegal issue.” It may be that families with money tend to be sensitized to issues that relate to material possessions, but certainly more research is needed. The child’s age was negatively correlated with both “harm” and “illegal issue,” which means that the younger the age of the child, the more concern parents will have. This was consistent with research suggesting that parents of younger children tend to be more worried about inappropriate content online than parents of older children (Lenhart et al., 2001). The age of the parents’ age was not an effective predictor of parental attitudes, and it was only negatively related with “edutainment.” It is possible that older parents are more conservative about the value of Internet so that they may not champion this aspect. The only demographic variable that showed no relationship with attitudes at all was parents’ gender. Although there is evidence of a gendered “digital divide,” it tends to be less prominent in technologically advanced societies (Chan & Wellman, 2003).

In addition to these findings, there are a number of limitations that must be noted. First, the use of a convenience sample prohibits generalizability, and care must be taken not to overextend the study findings. Second, the attitude items still need expansion and systematical development. Third, some variables potentially useful for the study were not included in the current study. For example, the gender of the child has been linked to parental attitudes. Lenhart et al. (2001) noted that parents of girls are more concerned about online victimization than parents of boys. Future research should take this variable into consideration and link parents’ attitude with their guidance behavior.
(2900 words, excluding tables and references)
Table 1 Sample profile (N=354)

Demographic	Number	%
Sex
Male	115	32.5
Female	234	66.1
Age
20-29	15	4.2
30-39	106	29.9
40-49	182	51.4
50+	50	14.1
Education
Primary or below	66	18.6
Secondary	199	56.2
College or above	88	24.9
Occupation
Housewives	119	33.6
Clerical, services and sales	99	28.0
Professionals and sub-professionals	55	15.5
Managerial, executive and administrative	34	9.6
Production and construction	27	7.6
Others (unemployed/retired)	14	4.0
Monthly household income HK$(bracket in US$)
$10,000 or below ($ 1,250 or below)	69	19.5
$10,001-30,000 ($1,251-2,750)	192	54.2
$30001-50,000 ($ 3,751-6,250)	58	15.8
$ 50,001 or above ($6,251 or above)	33	9.3
No. of Children
1	104	29.4
2	193	54.5
3 or more	58	13.0

Cells may not add up to total due to missing cases

Table 2 Parental attitudes toward children’s Internet use

Items	Agree/ Strongly Agree %	Neutral %	Disagree/Strongly Disagree%	Overall Mean	S.D.
Long time of hanging online will hurt children’s eyesight.	90.1	8.6	1.4	4.3	0.7
I worry about online pornography content.	76.7	18.8	4.5	3.9	0.7
Internet enables children to obtain the latest info about the world.	74.3	23.3	2.4	3.9	0.7
I worry about the violent content online.	69.5	21.9	8.6	3.8	0.8
Children chatting online will encounter bad people.	57.2	37.7	5.1	3.6	0.8
Children will indulge in Internet, and thus affect their study.	65.8	37.0	7.2	3.6	0.8
Indulged in Internet will discourage children to engage in personal communication.	51.2	32.3	16.5	3.4	0.9
I worry my child will download pirated software or files online.	42.5	45.9	11.6	3.4	0.9
Internet game offers a kind of creative entertainment to children.	44.9	40.4	14.7	3.3	0.8
I worry about my child will download content that violates the copyright law.	35.6	48.3	16.1	3.2	0.8
Children will develop a bad habit of gambling online.	29.8	41.1	29.1	3.0	0.9

Table 3 Factor analysis of parental attitudes toward children’s Internet use

Items	Component
	1	2	3
Factor 1(Harm)
Children chatting online will encounter bad people.	.78	.09	-.07
Children will indulge in Internet, and thus affect their study.	.73	.02	-.25
I worry about online pornography content.	.69	.38	.16
I worry about the violent content online.	.60	.53	.11
Long time of hanging online will hurt children’s eyesight.	.54	.16	.16
Factor 2 (Illegal issue)
I worry my children will download pirate software or files online.	.23	.83	.14
I worry about my child will download content that violates the copyright law.	.11	.79	.04
Children will develop a bad habit of gambling online.	.12	.72	-.16
Factor 3 (Edutainment)
Internet enables children to obtain the latest info about the world.	.23	-.17	.79
Internet game offers a kind of creative entertainment to children.	-.20	.16	.69
Variance explained (%)	24.4	23.3	12.7
Cumulative variance explained	24.4	47.8	60.5

1= Harm, 2= Illegal issue, 3= Edutainment

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.

Table 4 Bivariate correlations of demographic factors with attitudes factors

Items	Harm		Illegal issue		Edutainment		Overall attitudes
Age	-.05		-.08		-.10	*	.06
Sex	.07		.04		-.04		-.07
Education	-.06		.12	*	.16	**	-.01
Household income	.01		.12	*	.09		-.07
Computer and Internet Literacy	-.13	*	.15	**	.23	**	.05
Child’s age@	-.11	*	-.11	*	-.10		.12	*

**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

@ Child’s age refers to the youngest child’s age in a family

^References
Chan, K. & McNeal, J.U. (2002). Parent-child communications about consumption and advertising in China. Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 20 (4), 317-332

Chan, K., Shen, F., & Wilkinson, J. (2004). Parental guidance of children’s Internet using in Hong Kong: An explanative model. Paper presented at Association of Education for Journalism and Mass Communication Annual Conference, Toronto, Canada, 2004.

Chan, W., and Wellman, B. (2003). Charting and bridging digital divides: Comparing socio-economic, gender, life stage, and rural-urban Internet access and use in eight countries. AMD Global Consumer Advisory Board Report, archived at http://www.admgcab.org.

Census and Statistics Department, (2001). Median Monthly Income from Main Employment, 1991, 1996 and 2001. Retrieved November 23, 2003 from http://www.info.gov.hk/censtatd/eng/hkstat/fas/01c/cd0112001_index.html

Census and Statistics Department, (2002). Findings of the “Household Survey on Information Technology Usage and Penetration”. Retrieved November 23, 2003 from http://www.info.gov.hk/censtatd/eng/hkstat/hkinf/it_index.html
Census and Statistics Department, (2003). Findings of the “Household Survey on Information Technology Usage and Penetration”. Retrieved December 25, 2003 from http://www.info.gov.hk/censtatd/eng/whatsnew/ssb/press_it001122.html
Evangelista, B., and Hoge, P. (2004). Music industry files more suits: RIAA going after people using university computer systems to download music. San Francisco Chronicle. March 24, Retrieved March 26, 2004 from http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2004/03/24/BUGNL5QoPO15.DTL
Ho, D.Y. F. & Kang, T. K. (1984). Intergenerational comparisons of child-rearing attitudes and practices in Hong Kong. Developmental Psychology, Vol. 20 (6), 1004-1016.
Kerawalla, L., & Crook, C. (2002). Children’s computer use at home and at school: context and continuity. British Education Research Journal, 22.
Legon, J. (2003). Sex sells, especially to Web surfers. CNN.com. Retrieved December 12, 2003 from http://us.cnn.com/2003/TECH/internet/12/10/porn.business/index.html
Levy, S. (2003). Courthouse rock. Newsweek. 35-36, 41, September 22.
Livingstone, S. (2002). Children’s use of Internet: a review of the research literature. Retrieved December 12, 2003 from http://www.lse.ac.uk/depts/media/people/slivingstone/index.html
Livingstone, S. (2003). Children’s use of the Internet: reflections on the emerging research agenda. New Media & Society, Vol. 5 (2), 147-166.
Livingstone, S. & Bober, M. (2003). UK children go online: listening to young people’s experiences. ESRC E-Society Programme. Retrieved November 20, 2003, from http://www.psych.lse.ac.uk:16080/ children-go-online/UKChildrenGoOnlineReport1.pdf
Loher, P., & Meyer, M. (1999). Children, Television and the New Media. Luton: University of Luton Press.
Lenhart, A. Rainie, Lee, R., & Lewis, O. (2001). Teenage life online: the rise of the instant-message generation and the Internet’s impact on friendships and family relationships. Pew Internet & American Life Project.
Ma, R. (2004). Internet music downloaders are in prosecutors' sights. South China Morning Post, 5, April 11.
Symantec (2001). Parent’s attitude towards their children’s practice of surfing the Internet. Retrieved Sept. 25, 2003, from http://www.symatec.com/region/hk/press/hk_010619.html
Turow, J. (1999). The Internet and the family: The view from the parents- the view from the press. Report series no.27. Pennsylvania, PA: Annenberg Public Policy Center of the University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved November 22, 2003, from http://www.appcpenn.org/internet/family/finalrepor_fam.pdf
UCLA (2001). Surveying the digital future: year two. Center for Communication Policy, UCLA, Retrieved November 23, 2003 from http://www.ccp.ucla.edu
Valkenburg, P. M. & Soeters, Karen E. (2001). Children’s positive and negative experiences with the Internet: an exploratory survey. Communication Research, Vol. 28(5), 652-675.
Williams, N. (2000). Are we failing our children? Childnet-International Publications, Retrieved November 23, 2003 from http://www.childnet-int.org/downloads/childnet%20safety%20initiatives.pdf
Yang, K. S. (1989). The analysis of Chinese concept of Xiao. In K. S. Yang (Ed.), Chinese Psychology, 39-73, Taipei: Guiguan.

Short Bio

Dr. Kara Chan is Associate Professor at the Department of Communication Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University. She worked in the advertising and public relations profession and as a statistician for the Hong Kong Government before she joined the university.

Fei Shen is an M. Phil. Candidate in School of Communication, Hong Kong Baptist University. His research interests include social impacts of ICTs and media psychology.

Dr. Jeffrey S. Wilkinson is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication Studies, Hong Kong Baptist University. His research interests include media effects and new media technologies.

Dr. Wolfgang Donsbach,

Editor

International Journal of Public Opinion Research

Institut fur Kommunikationswissenschaft,

Technische Universite Dresden

01062 Dresden, Germany

November 15, 2004

Dear Dr. Donsback,
Submission of Article

Please find attached four hard copies of a manuscript titled Parental Attitudes toward Children’s Internet Use in Hong Kong for your consideration to be published in the International Journal of Public Opinion Research. This study is an original study and is not being considered by any publication venue. An earlier version of the manuscript was presented at a conference in 2004. Please do not hesitate to contact me if you have any inquiries. Thank you for your attention. Please kindly acknowledge when you receive it.

Yours sincerely,
_______________

Kara Chan

^{Parental attitudes IJPOR}

Download 122.97 Kb.

Share with your friends: