Pestvidéki Ásványbánya Vállalat
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- Speech-imitating machine
- Kempelen, Farkas . Speech writing machine
- Nemes, Tihamér. Spillenberg, János
- Most of the persons have their own entry. Springs, Veneration of
- László I, King. Sréter, Ferenc
- Evangelical Lutheran Church. Standard of Ur
- Sabirs; Sumerians. Stark, Tamás
- Star’s temperature, Measurement of
- .→ Astronomy in Hungary; Terkán, Lajos. State Coat-of-Arms
- State Office for Church Affairs
- Opus Pacis. State Property Deported to the West
- Holy Crown of Hungary, return of the.
Species Determination – Professor Hideo Matsumoto, of the Osaka Insstitute, specializing in blood testing for species-type determination (of subspecies, race) (concluded in his findings: “...the special genotype of human blood, the Gm gene is the only factor that determines the species” The above mentioned Gm factor is a genetic marker in all human beings for immune globulin, the gamma marker. The ABO blood types are on red blood cells, while the Gm gene is in the blood serum. The blood serum, made up of 90% water, contains 7-8% of different protein types. One of the proteins is the immune globulin, the main component of the immune system of the human body. The Gm gene is one form of gamma-globulin (IgG), consequently also an antibody and a form of the immune globulin. More exactly defined, the subdivisions of IgG, like IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 (there are around 20 different forms of them) are called Gm allotypes and the combinations of the allotypes are specific to different human subspecies. For example, in the Mongoloid subspecies, the combination of Gm(ag), Gm(axg), Gm(afb1f3), and Gm(ab3st) allotypes is steady and unchangeable. By examining the Gm gene allotypes, the three main racial groups of the human species, Homo sapiens, the CAUCASIAN, the MONGOLOID, and the NEGROID type can be separated very precisely.” Toward the end of the 20th century, Professor Matsumoto’s Institute in Osaka performed blood type examinations on the Hungarian population by examining the samples collected from the twenty different districts of the country. The Hungarian Academy of Sciences collected blood serum samples and sent them to Japan for examination. All of the samples contained a greater portion of the Caucasoid Gm genes (up to 21%), with a little mix of the south Mongolian genes, and none of the north Mongoloid genes. Professor Matsumoto informed the Hungarian Academy of Sciences that the Hungarian blood samples did not show any of the Finnish-Lapp (Finno-Ugrian) characteristics suggesting that Hungarians did not originate from the Finno-Ugric group. – B: 1020, 1935, T: 7660. Speech-imitating machine – (1) It was created by Farkas Kempelen (1734-1804) in 1790, after years of preliminary studies. He installed musical instruments, whose sounds most closely resembled the human voice, into an apparatus reminiscent of today's harmonium. Based on his experiments conducted with the machine, he published a book in 1791, entitled ’The Mechanism of the Human Language’. At the end of the 18th century, the Hungarian Farkas Kempelen was the first person to construct a well-functioning speech-imitating machine. The physiology of voice-generation, described in his book, had such a strong basis that it could be used as a starting point for all further research. (2) After Farkas Kempelen, József (Joseeph) Fáber also constructed a speech-imitating machine. It was demonstrated in the Hotel Tiger (Tigris Szálló) in Budapest, in mid-May of 1841, in the presence of experts. The interior of the apparatus was made of rubber and imitated the voice-generating human organs, and it was operated by bellows and a keyboard. According to the experts, the apparatus was good, but it expressed the sound "R" too strongly, while the sound “E” could be barely heard and, due to the lack of a nose, its voice was too nasal. The apparatus reappeared at a medical conference in 1868, supported by some opinions that it could assist in the communication between dumb people. No further information about the inventor is available, and the fate of the machine is unknown. According to some sources, the inventor destroyed it before he passed away in 1869. – B: 1020, 1226, T: 7674.→Kempelen, Farkas. Speech writing machine – An apparatus, which automatically converts human speech into typed text. Invented in 1935 by Tihamér Nemes, its patent was only registered in 1940 because the German patent office rejected it at first on grounds of principle: a machine does not think. All speech-writing machines of today are based on the principles established by Tihamér Nemes. – B: 1226, T: 7674.→Nemes, Tihamér. Spillenberg, János (John) (Kassa, ? 1628-1679) – Painter in the Baroque style. He called himself Pictor Hungaricus, although he lived and worked mostly in Venice and Bavaria. Among his masterpieces are the Vertumnus and Pomona. – B: 0872, T: 7103. Spinnery – Hemp-tow spinning in groups was well known in Hungary from the Middle Ages. It was a form of recreation for young and old alike. Spinning hemp was carried out after the fall harvest until the spring carnival time. Grown-up girls rented a room or a house in the village to establish the official spinning workshops. Different age groups, including young girls, women, and teen-agers organized their own spinning or distaff workshops. There were also mixed spinning workshops. These social gatherings included singing, story telling, and lighthearted play. The so-called ’dancing’ workshops had the richest lifestyle. They were held in evenings and were regularly frequented by the young men. The art of spinning was discontinued in the early 1900s and the spinning workshops also closed. – B: 1134, T: 3240. Spiró, György (George) (Budapest, 4 April 1946 - ) – Writer, translator of literary works, theater director and drama critic. In 1970, he obtained his B.A., majoring in Slavic Studies at the University of Budapest. He became Editor of Corvina Publisher from 1971 to 1978, and a scientific contributor at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences from 1978 to 1981. He obtained his M.A. in Literature in 1981. He was employed at the University of Budapest between 1981 and 1986. Thereafter, he was a dramurgist at the Gergely Csiky Theater (Csiky Gergely Színház) of Kaposvár from 1986. From 1992 to 1995 he was Director of the Szigligeti Theater (Szigligeti Színház) of Szolnok. From 1991 he was professor at the Department of Esthetics, University of Budapest. From 1990 to 1997 he was Professor at the Academy of Dramatic and Cinematic Art, Budapest. He retied in 2008. His first stage works were historical-philosophical parables (Hannibal, and The Peace-Emperor – A békecsászár). His drama, entitled Chicken Head (Csirkefej), scored a great success both in Hungary and abroad. He wrote over 20 volumes of works, e.g.: Ambulatory (Kerengő) poems (1974); T-boy, short-story (1994); The Ice-bird (A jégmadár) novel (2001), and Captivity (Fogság), novel (2005). His studies include Miroslav Krleža (1981); the Impostor (Swindler) comedy (1983), and The Drama of East-Central Europe (A Közép-kelet-európai dráma) (1986). His works were translated into a number of languages. He has received a number of honors including the Attila József Prize (1982), the Imre Madách Prize (1994), the Laurel wreath of the Republic of Hungary (2002), The Officer Cross of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary (2005), the Kossuth Prize (2006), the Visegád Prize (2009), and the Angelus Prize (2010). – B: 1031, 1257, 1445, T: 7456. Spontoon (fokos) – A short pike-like hand weapon, similar to an axe, made out of brass or iron, equally useful for attack or defense. It is lightweight and its blade is longer than that of an ordinary hand axe. The long round shaft is decorated with carvings and copper or lead inlays. Up to the 18th century it was the preferred weapon of the Kuruc and Hajdú soldiers. Even in 1809, the insurgent forces of the Hungarian nobility carried a fokos next to the saber, as part of their weaponry. Later, it was used only as a weapon of self-defense. The “balta”, “topora”, “csákány” and “csákány-balta” were all weapons characteristic of certain tribes. From the 19th century, only young shepherds, herdsmen and village lads carried them. Instead of a using walking stick they showed off the spontoon as a symbol of pride when visiting a home or walking in the market place. The decorated “fokos” until recently was the best man’s symbol at weddings. – B: 0942, 1134, 1153, T: 3233.→Axe. Sportsmen of the Nation – In 2004, the Hungarian Parliament created a list of 12 outstanding athletes naming them the Sportsmen of the Nation (A nemzet sportolói), meaning both men and women. Its number is always 12, and they are selected from among the leading athletes who are over 60 and still play important roles in Hungarian sport. They are entitled to bear the title of Sportsmen or Women of the Nation and they receive 500 000 Forint life-annuity per month. At the present time, they are: Flórián Albert soccer-player, András (Andrew) Balczó pentathlonist, Imre (Emeric) Földi weight-lifter, Dezső (Desider) Gyarmati water-polo player, László Ladislas) Hammerl marksman, Mária Ivánkai paraplegic table-tennis player, Ágnes Keleti gymnast, Győző (Victor) Kulcsár fencer, Imre (Emeric) Polyák wrestler, Lajos (Louis) Portish chess player, Éva Székely swimmer and Gyula (Julius) Zsivóczky hammer-thrower. – B: 1656, T: 7103.→Most of the persons have their own entry. Springs, Veneration of (Spring Cu1t) – Still present in the beliefs of numerous peoples who believe that the favorite abode of the god or spirit of the stream or river is at the well. There are numerous references in Hungarian chronicles to such veneration by early Hungarians. The Synod of Szabolcs (1092 AD) was forced to issue edicts against the spring and water veneration. Traditions vividly remind us of this ancient custom, telling of the miraculous origins of, and attributing special powers to certain fountainheads. According to legend, King St László (1077-1095) caused water to spring from a rock near Torda, in Transylvania, and at Jászó in Nyitra County, where water gushed from his horse’s hoof imprint. People tell of similar legends about St István and other saints. Christianity gradually metamorphosed this pagan custom. – B: 1078, T: 7614.→László I, King. Sréter, Ferenc (Francis) (Budapest, 4 December 1894 - Budapest, 6 July 1988) – Lutheran, then Free Church pastor. He graduated at Balassagyarmat in 1912. He was distinguished as a valiant soldier during World War I, and was promoted to the rank of captain. Subsequently, he gave away his land and became a pastor. He studied Theology in Sopron between 1928 and 1932; in Tübingen from 1931 to 1932, and in Göttingen in 1932. He was ordained in the same year. From 1943 he was assistant pastor in Szügy, then in Gödöllő, and later became church district missionary minister. In 1946, the Hungarian Evangelical Alliance elected him as its Managing Vice President. Between 1942 and 1953, he was pastor in Budapest-Budavár. During 1953 and 1954, he was an assistant pastor. In 1954, he resigned his position as pastor, and left the Lutheran Church. Sréter founded the Evangelical Brothers’ Congregation, which did not receive state recognition or an operating permit. Since 1972, the group has existed under the protection of the Methodist Church, although maintaining its independence nonetheless. In the 1960s, he worked as an external worker for a manufacturer co-operative. He retired in 1970. – B: 0883, T: 7667.→ Evangelical Lutheran Church. Standard of Ur – A mosaic-inlaid clay-tablet box prepared by the Sumerians, also known as the “Battle Standard of Ur”, or the “Royal Standard of Ur”. It was unearthed during excavations by Sir Leonard Woolley in Iraq in 1927-28, in the area of the ancient city of Ur, located south of Baghdad, what had been the Royal Cemetery. It is believed to date to between 2600–2400 BC. It is a small trapezoidal box, whose two sides and end panels are covered with figurative and geometric mosaics made of pieces of shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone set into bitumen The two sides, dubbed the “War Side” and the “Peace Side”, depict life in early Mesopotamia. The Standard shows the two most important roles of an early Mesopotamian ruler: the warrior, and the leader of the people. The English archaeologist, John E. Dayton in his book Minerals, Metals, Glazing and Man (London, 1978) deals, among other things, with the chemical analyses of ancient finds and mineral deposits. According to his working hypothesis, the Standard of Ur illustrates the military entry of that people, moving from Europe to the Near East and finally into the Indus River valley. Dayton contends that this migration must have taken place between 2000 and 1600 B.C. with the use of metallic objects, weapons, and cavalry with four-wheel carts, already known in the Carpathian Basin at that time. Dayton does not accept the chronology currently used in ancient history and is trying to make appropriate adjustments. – B: 0820, T: 7456.→Sabirs; Sumerians. Stark, Tamás (Thomas) (Budapest, 2 March 1959 - ) – Historian. He finished his university studies in 1983 at the Department of International Relations of the University of Economics in Budapest. In 1995-1996 he was on a scholarship of the Research Institute of the Holocaust Memorial Museum of Washington, USA. Since 1983 he has been working in the Institute of History of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, since 2000 as principal scientific contributor. He is Candidate in historical studies, also principal contributor of the Terror House Museum, Budaspest. His works include The Human Losses of Hungary in World War II (Magyarország második világháborus embervesztesége) (1989); Hungarian Jews during the Holocaust and after the Second World War, 1939-1949 (Statistical Review, 2000); Hungarian Prisoners of War in the Soviet Union (Magyar foglyok a Szovietunióban) (2006), and People on the Move. Forced Population Movements in Europe in the Second World War and its Aftermath, with co-authors (2008). – B: 1031, T: 7456. Star legends – Folk-poetry associated with the stars explained the origins of the naming of stars by interpreting the position of each star within a cluster of stars respectively. For example: the Great Bear is called Göncölszekér meaning “Göncöl’s coach”; the Pleiades are called Fiastyúk meaning “Brooding hen” and Orion is called ‘kaszáscsillag’, meaning “Skythe-star”. A few constellations that survived in folklore thus far have not been identified, e.g. two orphan stars, “Our Lord Christ’s Table” and the “Wreath Star”. – B: 1134, T: 7659. Star’s temperature, Measurement of – Baron Béla Harkányi (1869-1932) was the first to establish that the temperatures of the fixed stars can be determined from their color spectrum. Lajos (Louis) Terkán developed and published his improved method of measurement of the stars' temperature in 1904. – B: 1230, T: 7674.→ Astronomy in Hungary; Terkán, Lajos. State Coat-of-Arms – The 1202 royal seal of King Imre (Emeric, 1196-1204) was, until recently, the oldest known document of Hungary’s state coat-of-arms. It shows nine rampant lions among the four buntings on the shield. Later, in 1222, the Golden Bull of King András II (Andrew) (1205-1235), was divided into seven sections and on the divisions is a pair of face-to-face rampant lions, and in between them adjacent heart- shaped designs. On the double seal of 1231, consisting of seven buntings, once more the rampant lions are found on the field of the shield, totaling eleven. Until the age of the Anjou kings (1307-1382), the lions and divisions are no longer part of the seal. After the Anjou period, the seven dividers stay, alternating four times in white and red color. The other main part of the state crest is the double cross, or in the language of heraldry, Hungarian Cross. As a symbol of power, it is of very old origin, already found on the seal of King Béla IV (1235-1270) in 1243. The triple hills occur on the seal of King András III’s widow and the crown at the base of the double cross first appears on the seal of King Zsigmond (Sigismund of Luxembourg) (1387-1437) in 1389. After the House of Árpád died out (1301), the individual rulers combined the Hungarian state crest with their own family crests. The Small and Middle Crest of Hungary was established by Royal Decree on 9 February 1874. The small crest: the right side of the slashed heraldic crest consists of four red and three silver bands, thus seven times divided. On the left side, on a red base, triple hills of green color show the double white Hungarian Cross emerging from the gold crown. The main part is the heraldic right side, which displays the ancient symbols: the number four and the red color for the sun, the number three and the silver color for the moon. The sum of the two numbers symbolizes the ancient sacred number of seven, which separately or combined is a symbol of the ancient world. The Middle Crest: on top of the heraldically right side base with five divisions: on a blue base three crowned golden lion heads (Dalmatia). In the center of the right side: on a blue shield, on a blue silver-edged wavy bunting, is a running stone marten, above it a six-pointed gold star (Slavonia). On the top left side: there are twenty-five square shaped fields, of alternating silver and red (Croatia). In the center of the left side: divided by a horizontal red bunting, there is a shield; in the upper blue field there is a black eagle, flanked by the golden sun on the right and the third quarter waxing moon on the left. Under the red bunting, seven red bastion towers (Transylvania) stand in a golden field. In the shape of a shield coming in from below: on a red base, on a flat rock surrounded by water, stands a double-headed black eagle, above its head a blue-lined princely crown is floating, and its left foot is placed on a overturned pitcher discharging water (Fiume, now Rijeka in Croatia, entered into the Hungarian middle coat of arms then). The center shield, containing the small coat-of-arms partially covers those below it. The Holy Crown of Hungary is placed above both coats-of-arms. In 1896, and after 1916, the established official state coat-of-arms -- the middle coat-of-arms with the angels – was exclusively used on the white-based flag of the Head of State and the Ministry of External Affairs; and the red, white and green flags of embassies and consulates. The use of the small coat-of-arms, enclosed with the laurel-leaf wreath, was reserved for state offices (ministries, armed forces, gendarmes, police, post office, etc.). After World War I, under Mihály (Michael) Károlyi (1918-1919), the small crest without the crown was used. During the time of the Council (Soviet) Republic’s 133 days of 1919, the red star was added to the sickle and hammer. The Treaty of Trianon did not regulate the usage of the coat-of-arms. The 1921 section XXXVIII of the Treaty indicated that the Hungarian State did not relinquish the usage of the above mentioned coats-of-arms. Following World War II, the changed political order in Hungary also affected the state coat-of-arms; it changed several times. In the time of Zoltán Tildy, President of the Republic, the small coat-of-arms was in usage without the crown. After the proclamation of the Hungarian People’s Republic, 20 August 1949, the unified, Soviet-style, wheat sheaf and hammer coat-of-arms beneath the five-pointed red star were legislated. During the time of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the small stylized coat-of-arms without the crown came into usage. Description of the coat-of-arms of the Hungarian People’s Republic from 1 May 1957 was supported on both sides by a wheat-sheaf wreath, standing in a light-blue colored field. The wheat sheaf is braided over from the left with red, white and green ribbons, and from the right with a red ribbon. Above the shield is a centrally positioned five-pointed red star radiating gold rays onto the field. On 3 July 1990, the Parliament of the Republic of Hungary issued a law, proclaiming that the small coat-of-arms of 9 February 1874 is, once again, the official State Coat-of-Arms; embracing its traditions and the desire to restore the order that becomes Hungary’s independent statehood of historical order. – B: 0942, 1078, 1020, T: 7671. State Office for Church Affairs (Állami Egyházügyi Hivtal – ÁEH) (1 January 1950 - 30 June 1989) – By the end of 1948, the Communist-led leftwing Coalition Government dominated Hungary’s political life. One of their aims was to liquidate, or at least control all such organizations that were regarded by them as “enemy forces” or “clerical reaction”, which might offer hiding places for anti-system organizations. On a Communist initiative, on 15 May, the Parliament, by its Act 1951.I., decided to set up the State Office for Church Affairs. Its aims were: ”To deal with matters of State-Church relations”. In reality, it was the arm of the Communist state for executing its church-policy and controlling church activities. The national system of the Office was well organized: at the Head Office there were Departments to deal with affairs of Roman Catholic, Protestant and other Churhes, orf religious communikies, and there were full-time secretaries on a county level, offices on a district level, and every settlement, town and village had a clerk in the local council administration, who was charged, sometimes partly, with the surveillance of church activities and church personnel. The Head Office kept contact with identical offices in the other socialist states. Clerks of the offices at all levels had to prepare quarterly and annual reports on church activities within their jurisdiction. In case of urgency, they could call the Head Office through a special K-telephone-line. In the beginning, the Office was a department of the Ministry of Education, and then it had its own headquarters. From 1968, its president assumed the title of Undersecretary. Its presidents were: János (John) Horváth (1951), Károly (Charles) Olt (1959), József (Joseph) Prantner (1961) and Imre (Emeric) Miklós (1971). In the process of political change, on 30 June 1989 the State Office for Church Affairs was dissolved without a successor by Act 14, 1989. In its place, the National Council of Religious Affairs (Országos Vallásügyi Tanács) was organized on 20 October 1989. From 2010 there is a Religious, Ethnic State Secretriat within the Public Administration and Justice Ministry. In 2011 the Parliament adopted a new Church Law. – B: 0613, 0910, 0945, T: 7103.→Opus Pacis. State Property Deported to the West – At the end of World War II, considerable amounts of Hungarian state property were evacuated to the West, mainly to Bavaria, Germany, to escape from the encroaching Soviet armies. According to the records of the Hungarian Ministry of Defense, numerous military industrial plants, 300 locomotives, 10,000 railway cars, 400 automobiles, 4756 horses from the state-owned breeding stables, large quantities of seed and grain, enough food material to supply one million Hungarians for a year, and 10,000 additional items ended up in Germany. Moreover, the gold and foreign currency reserves of the Hungarian National Bank, and valuable art works and objects of historical importance from the country’s museums were also deported. Included were the Hungarian Holy Crown and the Holy Right Hand of St István, both of which had and continue to have both national and religious significance. At the end of the war, most of this property came under the control of the American forces. Colonel Kisbarnaki Ferenc (Francis) Farkas, leader of the Hungarian Freedom Movement, presented a memorandum to the American High Command. He pointed out the historical and national significance of the Holy Crown and the Holy Right Hand for Hungary, and asked the Americans to take them under their control and preserve them until they could be returned to the constitutional government of a free Hungary. On May 2, 1945, the Holy Crown and other jewels were handed over by a Hungarian Army General to a U.S. Army Colonel near Egglesberg, Austria. The Crown had been packed in a large black satchel. It was initially sheltered in Wiesbaden, in the American Zone, but was later transferred to the United States Gold Reserve at Ft. Knox, Kentucky. It was not considered as spoils of war; rather, the U.S. Government stored it in hopes of returning it to the Hungarian people one day. (It was returned to Hngary in 1978). He also asked them to secure the gold reserves of the Hungarian National Bank and prevent their falling into unauthorized hands. In addition, he requested that the rest of the deported Hungarian state property remain under Hungarian control and not be considered war booty. Finally, he asked the Americans to exempt from imprisonment the surrendered Hungarian soldiers who did not fight against the West. His requests were only partially fulfilled and many Hungarians, who fled to the West from the Soviet Army, became prisoners of war for some period. However, either directly or indirectly, a large part of the evacuated Hungarian property ended up in Soviet hands, resulting in additional war losses for Hungary. – B: 1020, T: 7665.→Holy Crown of Hungary, return of the. 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