Reducing the impact of lead emissions at airports

1^ See www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/lead.html.

2^ Bierkens, J.; Smolders, R.; Van Holderbeke, M.; Cornelis, C. Predicting blood lead levels from current and past environmental data in Europe. Science of the Total Environment. 2011, 409 (23), 5101−5110, DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.08.034.

3^ Brunekreef, B. The relationship between air lead and blood lead in children: A critical-review. Science of the Total Environment. 1984, 38 (SEP), 79−123

4^ Hayes, E. B.; Orback, H. G.; Fernandez, A. M.; Lyne, S.; Matte, T. D.; McElvaine, M. D. Long-term trends in blood lead levels among children in Chicago: Relationship to air lead levels. Pediatrics 1994, 93(2), 195−200.

5^ Schwartz, J.; Pitcher, H. The relationship between gasoline lead and blood lead in the United States. Journal of Official Statistics. 1989, 5, 421−431.

6^ International Programme on Chemical Safety. Environmental health criteria 165. World HealthOrganization; Geneva: 1995. Inorganic lead

7^ Preventing lead poisoning in young children: a statement by the Centers for Disease Control.Centers for Disease Control; Atlanta: 1991

1^ See http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/lead/acclpp/blood_lead_levels.htm.

2^ U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Part 50; National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Lead; Proposed Rule. FR 80(2): 278-324 (2015), www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-2015-01-05/pdf/2014-30681.pdf.

3^ Midgley, T. and Boyd, T. A. “The Chemical Control of Gaseous Detonation with Particular Reference to the Internal-Combustion Engine,” Industry & Engineering Chemistry. 1922, 14 (10), pp 894–898.

4^ Fuel Additives: Use and Benefits. ATC Document 113, September 2013.

1^ Draft PBT National Action Plan for Alkyl-lead, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, August 2000, www.epa.gov/pbt/pubs/alkylaction.htm.

2^ National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900 – 1998, EPA-454/R-00-002, United States Environmental Protection Agency, March 2000.

3^ Leaded gasoline continued to be used in racing applications in the U.S.; strictly speaking these are not on-road motor vehicles.

4^ Leaded Aviation Fuel and the Environment (Fact Sheet), Federal Aviation Administration, June 2013.

1^ See www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=pet&s=mgaupus2&f=a

2^ Annual Energy Outlook 2015 with Projections to 2040 (AEO2015), DOE/EIA-0383(2015), U.S. Energy Information Agency, March 2015.

3^ “Getting the Lead Out: The Future of Avgas,” Aviation Week, February 2015, http://aviationweek.com/bca/getting-lead-out-future-avgas.

1^ The unleaded replacement gasoline for 100LL will satisfy the requirements of all piston engines using AVGAS regardless of the engine performance level. Multiple phases of aircraft testing are proposed, and a 2018 timeframe is currently estimated for publishing ASTM specifications for the unleaded replacement for 100LL. Commercial fuel production would occur sometime after the ASTM specifications are published.

2^ New diesel-fueled piston-engine aircraft and engine conversions are being developed—see www.kansas.com/news/business/aviation/article2102433.html.

1^ ASTM specifications exist (i.e., ASTM D6227) for 82UL (i.e., unleaded 82 MON AVGAS), but this grade of AVGAS is not currently sold or in production. ASTM D7547 provides specifications for 91UL grade AVGAS, which was approved in 2010 by the European Aviation Safety Agency (91UL has been in use since 1991 in Europe). However, 91UL AVGAS is not available in the U.S.

2^ Regular grade MOGAS is 87 AKI; premium grade MOGAS is 91 AKI or above

3^ Two octane ratings are applied to aviation gasolines (the lean mixture rating and the rich mixture rating), which results in a multiple numbering system, (e.g., AVGAS 100/130; in this case, the lean mixture performance rating is 100 and the rich mixture rating is 130). Historically, there were many different grades of AVGAS in use (e.g., 80/87, 91/96, 100/130,108/135, and 115/145); with decreasing demand, however, these have been consolidated down to one principal grade—AVGAS 100/130. To avoid confusion and to minimize errors in handling AVGAS, it is now common practice to designate the grade by just the lean mixture performance (i.e., AVGAS 100/130 has become AVGAS 100).

4^ Leaded Aviation Fuel and the Environment (Fact Sheet), Federal Aviation Administration, June 2013.

1^ Only Rotax engines were identified as engines that allow the conditional use of ethanol, provided the airframe manufacturer approves the use of ethanol-blends in all fuel-related componentry; regardless, Rotax prefers the use of ethanol-free gasoline.

2^ See www.faa.gov/news/safety_briefing/2009/media/mayjun2009.pdf

3^ Effectively, 100% of on-road motor gasoline is blended with ethanol; however, there are suppliers of ethanol-free MOGAS that continue to supply fuel for specialty applications such as aviation.

4^ Other models of the Piper Cherokee can operate on 91 AKI MOGAS without any fuel system modifications.

5^ See www.autofuelstc.com/approved_engines_airfames.phtml.

6^ See www.eaa.org/en/eaa/aviation-communities-and-interests/pilot-resources/auto-fuel-stc/approved-engine-models.

7^ Billing, Dean. Aviation Fuel Update June 2012, www.flyunleaded.com/.

8^ Rumizen, Mark. “Aviation Gasoline, Status and Future Prospects,” U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, presented at the 34^th Annual FAA Forecast Conference, June 2009.

9^ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avgas.

10^ The estimated 40–50% share is based on aircraft population. The share of AVGAS consumed by these aircraft is likely somewhat less as these aircraft tend to be lighter (less fuel per operation) and more likely to be used for sport/recreation (fewer operations per year).

1^ General Aviation and Part 135 Activity Surveys. CY2013 survey as posted here: www.faa.gov/data_research/aviation_data_statistics/general_aviation/CY2013/.

2^ See www.flyunleaded.com/airports.php.

1^ http://aviationweek.com/bca/lawsuit-against-california-fbos-over-sale-leaded-avgas-settled

2^ http://generalaviationnews.com/2015/03/15/result-of-ceh-lawsuit-settlement-were-there-any/

1^ Business Case Assessment to Provide MOGAS at Portland-Hillsboro Airport, KB Environmental Sciences, December 2014.

1^ See www.flyunleaded.com/distributors.php.

2^ Leaded Aviation Fuel and the Environment (Fact Sheet), Federal Aviation Administration, June 2013.

1^ See www.trb.org/Main/Blurbs/172598.aspx

1^ Historical national-average refinery product retail price data (i.e., sales direct to end users) show that AVGAS is a higher cost product than MOGAS in every year since 1990. The 25-year historical average from 1990 to 2014 is a 44 cent per gallon cost premium for AVGAS. The most recent cost differential of $1.13 per gallon is the maximum observed over the last 25 years.

1^ See 2015 General Aviation Statistical Databook & 2016 Industry Outlook http://www.gama.aero/files/GAMA_2015_Databook_LoRes%20updated%203-29-2016.pdf

2^ In 2008, the California Air Resources Board adopted regulations to control leakage, spillage, and hydrocarbon vapor emissions from aboveground gasoline storage tanks, which have since been adopted in full or in part by a number of other states. See www.arb.ca.gov/vapor/ast/ast.htm.

3^ “Understanding Fuel: Costs, Purchasing, Pricing Strategy, & Internationally,” presentation at National Business Aviation Association 2014 Schedulers & Dispatchers Conference. January 17, 2014.

1^ See www.lakelandgov.net/portals/CityClerk/CityCommission/Agendas/10-21-13/10-21-13%20V-B%20Rec%20re%20LLRA%20Fuel%20Farm.pdf; 2013 costs adjusted to CY2015 basis.

2^ http://www.pdx.com/Content/PDF/HIO_HARE_Fuel_stdy.pdf; 2014 costs adjusted to a CY2015 basis.

3^ftp://ftp.odot.state.or.us/ConnectOregonVApps/AllOtherApplications/4A0259_MOGAS%20Aircraft%20Fueling%20Facility%20FTP4.pdf; costs adjusted to a CY2015 basis.

4^ ASTM specifications for 82UL AVGAS were published in the late 1990s and commercial fuel development has not yet commenced.

1^ www.nbaa.org/ops/environment/avgas/20110914-FAA-SAIB-NE-11-55.pdf

2^ http://apps.trb.org/cmsfeed/TRBNetProjectDisplay.asp?ProjectID=3035

1^ Development and Evaluation of an Air Quality Modeling Approach for Lead Emissions from Piston-Engine Aircraft Operating on Leaded Aviation Gasoline, EPA-420-R-10-007, prepared by ICF International and T&B Systems for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2010.

2^ ACRP Web Only Document 21: Quantifying Aircraft Lead Emissions at Airports, Final Contractor Report for ACRP 02-34, prepared by Sierra Research, KB Environmental, and Washington University St. Louis for the Airport Cooperative Research Program, October 2014. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/acrp/acrp_webdoc_021.pdf

3^ Gradient Study at McClellan-Palomar Airport, Final Report, San Diego Air Pollution Control District, October 2013.

1^ Calculating Piston-Engine Aircraft Airport Inventories for Lead for the 2011 National Emissions Inventory, EPA-420-B-13-040, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, September 2013.

1^ Additional information can be found in ACRP Web-Only Document 21:Quantifying Airport Lead Emissions at Airports.

2^ “Selection of Airports for the Airport Monitoring Study,” memorandum from the Office of Transportation and Air Quality, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to the Lead NAAQS Docket EPA-HQ-OAR-2006-0735. www3.epa.gov/otaq/regs/nonroad/aviation/memo-selc-airport-mon-stdy.pdf

1^ Letter from Meredith Kurplus, Air Quality Analysis Office, U.S. EPA Region IX to David Shina, SDAPCD, December 9, 2013.

1^ This recommendation is provided in order to focus potentially limited resources for strategy implementation. Certainly, the most rigorous analysis possible is the ideal case—cost issues notwithstanding. However, it is sufficient to consider a more cost-efficient approach that would not compromise the ability to assess the relative impact of the candidate scenarios. It is believed that published values for average fleet characteristics and time-in-mode would be adequate to assess the relative effectiveness of this strategy with respect to air quality.

1^ Airport Master Plan Update, PB Aviation, October 2004.

2^ Airport Development Schedule and Financial Analysis, 2007 Master Plan Update, prepared by Wilbur Smith Associates for the City of Chandler, 2006.

3^ Lake County Airport Master Plan Update, WHPACIFIC, December 2013.

1^ See http://registry.faa.gov/aircraftinquiry/

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