Review of import conditions for fresh taro corms


The ancestral type of taro



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The ancestral type of taro

Conflicting views on the original distribution of taro, and its long history of cultivation, have resulted in different views on which (if any) of the current wild forms correspond with the original species. It has often been assumed that var. antiquorum most closely resembles the ancestral stock, with var. esculenta representing a long-term selection for larger corms. However, Ivancic and Lebot (1999) identified dasheen (var. esculenta) type plants as probably indigenous to New Caledonia. Somewhat similar wild plants found in Nepal and Yunnan (China) by Yoshino (2002) were thought to be hybrids arising from interspecific or intergeneric hybridisation within Colocasia or between Colocasia and Alocasia.

Yoshino (2002) suggested that Colocasia esculenta var. aquatilis was probably a descendent of the pre-cultivation species. Vinning (2003) suggested that Colocasia esculenta var. aquatilis should be referred to as ‘wild type’ Colocasia esculenta. Colocasia esculenta is considered native in the Northern Territory of Australia (Cowie and Albrecht 2005), and these stoloniferous plants would be placed in var. aquatilis in an infraspecific classification.

Ivancic and Lebot (2000) considered that there was a ‘true’ wild type (e.g. in the Solomon Islands) characterised by extremely long stolons, fast leaf regeneration, continuous growth, small elongated corms and, usually, high calcium oxalate concentrations. The corms of these plants are almost never eaten, but the leaves may be. In addition these authors recognised wild taro in the Solomon Islands and Papua New Guinea with some characteristics of cultivated types. They also recognised wild taro that they thought may have originated as hybrids between cultivated and true wild type taro, and plants that were obvious and hardly-altered escapes from cultivation.

A study by Kreike et al. (2004) using AFLP DNA fingerprinting techniques found there were two distinct gene pools in diploid taro, one found in the Pacific plus Thailand, and the other found only in SE Asia. Two major groups of triploids were found, each internally diverse, suggesting that triploids had arisen at least twice, and that this was an old, rather than recent, event. They found no connection between ploidy and dasheen/eddoe type of corm.

Classification of taro

There is no clear consensus on the classification of taro. Names are applied in three main contexts: botanical (taxonomic), agronomic, and cultivar, and there is only limited congruence between the three.

Formal taxonomic names

The formal taxonomy of this group is very complex and the subject of continued scientific debate. The taxonomy of the genus as a whole has not been formally revised for at least 30 years. The standard reference for taxonomic treatment of the group is Purseglove (1972), although Hay (1996) provided a synopsis of Colocasia for Australia and Papua New Guinea, in which he discussed variation within Colocasia esculenta. Traditionally, taxonomists have recognised two main taxa, but there is considerable difference of opinion on the ranks to be applied to them. The two taxa are:



Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott var. esculenta

Synonyms: Colocasia esculenta var. typica A.F. Hill; Colocasia antiquorum var. esculenta (L.) Schott ex Engl.

This is the plant commonly known as large corm taro, or dasheen type. The variety is characterised by its large cylindrical central corm, lacking hairs, and with few cormels. The central corm provides the main crop.

Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum (Schott) Hubbard & Rehd

Synonyms: Colocasia antiquorum Schott; Colocasia esculentum subsp. antiquorum Haudricourt; Colocasia esculenta var. globulifera (Engl. & K. Krause) Young; Colocasia antiquorum var. typica Engl.

This is the plant commonly known as small corm taro, or eddoe type. The variety is characterised by having a small, more or less globular, central corm, bearing long shaggy hairs in the upper part, with several relatively large cormels arising laterally. The lateral cormels provide the main crop.

Important works recognising these varieties include Purseglove (1972), Onwueme (1999), Bown (2000), Ivancic and Lebot (2000), Chay-Prove and Goebel (2004), Kreike et al. (2004), James et al. (2006) and Orchard (2007). A few maintain the above two taxa as distinct species (Colocasia esculenta and Colocasia antiquorum) rather than varieties of Colocasia esculenta (e.g. Onyilagha et al. 1987).

In addition to the above two taxa, others are sometimes recognised, including the following:

Colocasia esculenta var. aquatilis Hassk.

Synonyms: Colocasia esculenta ‘Aquatilis’; Colocasia antiquorum var. aquatilis (Hassk.) Hassk. ex Engl.

This name is applied to wild types of Colocasia esculenta that are found in SW and SE Asia, China, the Ryukyu Islands, Australia and some oceanic islands (and as introduced in USA – see NRCS (2009)).

The variety is characterised by having small, poorly developed, acrid, often inedible corms, long lateral stolons, and an absence of daughter corms. It is mainly used for pig food (Yoshino 2002). Exceptionally, the stolons are pickled as a delicacy in Yunnan (Xu et al. 2001).

Works accepting this taxon include Bailey and Bailey (1976), NRCS (2009), Xu et al. (2001), and Orchard (2007).

Colocasia esculenta var. nymphaeifolia (Vent.) A.F. Hill

Synonyms: Caladium nymphaeifolium Vent.; Arum nymphaeifolium (Vent.) Bull; Colocasia nymphaeifolia (Vent.) Kunth (sometimes incorrectly spelled nymphiifolia).

This variety is found in Japan, under the cultivar name Hasubaimo, and has been introduced to the USA (NRCS 2009). It is characterised by an absence of bending between petiole and leaf blade.

Works accepting this taxon include Hirai et al. (1989) and NRCS (2009).



Colocasia esculenta var. euchlora (K.Koch & Linden) A.F.Hill

Synonyms: Colocasia esculenta ‘Euchlora’; Colocasia euchlora K.Koch & Linden; Colocasia antiquorum var. euchlora (K.Koch & Linden) Engl.

This variety is characterised by deep green leaves with purple margins and petioles, but is now usually only recognised as distinct in gardening books.

In some recent taxonomic works, including Floras and handbooks, there is a tendency to ignore formal varieties, and treat taro as a unitary species with the name Colocasia esculenta (e.g. Smith 1979; Hay 1990; Nasir 1978, Thompson 2000, and Hay 1996). This position was supported by Vinning (2003), quoting the results of the TANSAO Project. The recognition of varieties is, however, supported by others, including Orchard (2007) and others cited above.

For the purposes of this report the following taxa are recognised: Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott var. esculenta, Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum (Schott) Hubbard & Rehd. and Colocasia esculenta var. aquatilis Hassk.

Agronomic classifications

Of agronomic papers that distinguish different types of taro, almost all use the distinction of dasheen (large corm) and eddoe (small corm) types, rather than the botanical varieties. Most do not define these types, but the consensus seems to be as follows:

Dasheen type (large corm taro) (Figure D.1)

Dasheen is the main type grown in Africa, the West Indies, southern Asia and Oceania (Purseglove 1972). The corm is large and cylindrical, up to 30 cm in length and 15 cm in diameter, lacking hairs, with few cormels, and only very rarely, stolons. Sprouting arises from the petiole base, and if this is excised, the remaining corm will usually not sprout, i.e. the corm has a terminal meristem. The central corm is harvested as the main crop, the lateral cormels being discarded or used as planting stock. A portion of the spadix bearing male flower protrudes above the neck of the spathe, and has a very short sterile appendage free of the spathe.


Figure D.1: A typical dasheen type large corm taro


APEX

BASE

Remnant scar from the base of the cormel originally used as planting material

Emerging lateral bud

Eddoe type (small corm taro) (Figure D.2)

The eddoe type is the favoured taro in northern Asia, including Japan and China. It is also grown in the West Indies and, to a limited extent, in southern USA (Purseglove 1972). The central corm is small, globoid, and surrounded by cormels (stem tubers) and daughter corms. It has long shaggy hairs in the upper part. If the apex of the corm is removed, the remaining corm will sprout readily from lateral buds, i.e. the corm has copious lateral meristems. The lateral cormels and corms constitute the main crop as well as the new planting stock: the central corm is generally considered inedible. The sterile appendage of the spadix is long, three times the length of that in the dasheen type, and is retained within the inrolled tip of the spathe.

Figure D.2: A typical eddoe type small corm taro



Although Figures D.1 and D.2 depict typical large and small taro corms, it should be noted that due to the large number of cultivars recorded, commercially cultivated corms are likely to vary in size and shape, in addition to colour, flavour and texture.



Classification of cultivars

Cutting across the botanical and agronomic classifications is a broad classification of many locally recognised cultivars. Some local guides to these cultivars have been produced, as for example, those for 50 cultivars in peninsular Malaya (Ghani 1984), those of Japan (Hirai et al. 1989; Matsuda 2002), Japan and Taiwan (Tanimoto 1990), those of E and SE Asia and Oceania (Yoshino 2002; Lebot et al. 2004), and those of Hawaii (Whitney et al. 1939; James et al. 2006). Cho et al. (2007) discussed the approximately 200 cultivars that may once have existed in Hawaii, compared with only about 75 surviving in official living collections there today.

These informal classifications, at least the most recent ones, tend not to recognise the traditional division between var. esculenta and var. antiquorum, but instead name informal groups of morphologically and/or genetically similar cultivars. Thus, Ghani (1984) recognised 50 cultivars identified by local names, in four groups and several subgroups in peninsular Malaya. Hirai et al. (1989) recognised 80 cultivars from Japan, divided into nine major groups. Xu et al. (2001) studied 42 samples (with local names) representing 20 cultivars in five major morphotypes in China. Rodríguez Manzano et al. (2001) grouped 42 Cuban clones into six informal groups and several subgroups. Matsuda (2002) recognised 80 cultivars in eleven main cultivar groups in Japan. Lebot et al. (2004) worked on 2298 accessions representing, inter alia, at least 378 cultivars from Vanuatu, 54 from Indonesia, 15 from Malaysia, 19 from the Philippines, 35 from Thailand, and 29 from Vietnam.

Maemouri (2003) reported on a collection of 824 taro accessions representing 594 landraces from just four out of nine provinces of the Solomon Islands. She noted that there was a constant turnover of cultivars in the Solomon Islands, with new forms being continually selected and trialled. In Hawaii, MacCaughey and Emerson (1913, 1914) suggested that there might once have been 150–175 distinct named cultivars of taro in the islands, of which many are now lost. Whitney et al. (1939) recognised 84 distinct types of taro in Hawaii, of which 69 were derived from local plants. James et al. (2006) provided a key to 97 cultivars of taro in the Hawaiian Islands. Of these Hawaiian cultivars, 95 were assigned to var. esculenta, one (Tsuronoko (Araimo)) to var. antiquorum, and one (Zuiki) to Colocasia gigantea.

A number of Colocasia esculenta cultivars are grown as ornamental horticultural subjects under the common name Elephant Ears. There are many of these, but some of the better known ones (Christman 2006) are:


  • Colocasia esculenta ‘Black Magic’ – dark purple leaves

  • Colocasia esculenta ‘Jet Black Gold’ – dark purple leaves

  • Colocasia esculenta ‘Jet Black Wonder’ – dark purple leaves with light coloured veins

  • Colocasia esculenta ‘Portadora’ – a vigorous form with ruffled leaves

  • Colocasia esculenta ‘Hilo’ – a dwarf form with variegated leaves

  • Colocasia esculenta ‘Fontanesia’ (syn. Colocasia esculenta var. fontanesii (Schott ex Engl.) A.F.Hill) – with violet stems and leaves with wine red veins, margins and petioles

  • Colocasia esculenta ‘Illustris’ (syn. Colocasia esculenta var. illustris (Bull) A.F.Hill) – purple markings between the leaf veins

The main taro cultivars

Wherever taro is grown there are a multitude of locally recognised cultivars, distinguished by the colour of the tuber flesh (white, pink or red), the colour of the leaf lamina and veins (shades of green, with or without a purple spot on the upper surface above the insertion of the petiole), the colour of the petiole (various shades of green, pinkish purple, almost black, or streaked), and by taste (acridity) of the tubers and leaves. There are many hundreds of cultivars, or perhaps even 15 000 (Ivancic and Lebot 2000), and their nomenclature is complex and inconsistent, with the same or very similar cultivars being grown under different names in different countries. For example, Purseglove (1972) suggested that ‘Common Eddoe’ of the West Indies was the same as ‘Trinidad’ in the USA.

In the Pacific some of the cultivars grown commercially are:


  • Akado – Hawaii (Valenzuela and Sato 2004)

  • Dirratengadik – Palau (Brooks 2000b)

  • Lehua Maoli (Maui Lehua) (for poi) – Hawaii (Trujillo et al. 2002; Hamasaki et al. 2000; Valenzuela and Sato 2004)

  • Manu’a – American Samoa (Navarro et al. 1986)

  • Meltalt – Palau (Brooks 2000b)

  • Miyako – Hawaii (Valenzuela and Sato 2004)

  • Ngeruuch – Palau (Trujillo et al. 2002)

  • Palau – Samoa (Aregheore and Perera 2003)

  • Pa'lehua, Pa'akala, and Pauakea – Hawaii (Trujillo et al. 2002)

  • Pink Samoan – Fiji (Daniells et al. 2004)

  • Pwetepwet – Samoa (Aregheore and Perera 2003)

  • Rota (Antiguo) – Northern Marianas (Brooks 2000b)

  • Samoa and Samoa hybrid – Samoa (Jackson et al. 2001)

  • Taro Niue (Tau(s)ala ni Samoa) – Fiji (Daniells et al. 2004); Hawaii (Valenzuela and Sato 2004); American Samoa (Navarro et al. 1986); Samoa (Jackson et al. 2001)

  • Toakulu – Samoa (Jackson et al. 2001)

  • Tsurunoko – Hawaii (Valenzuela and Sato 2004)

In addition there are innumerable locally grown cultivars (see for example Lebot et al. 2004; Cho et al. 2007).

The ‘piko’ group of taro in Hawaii are unusual in that they have hastate leaves (lamina attached by their margin to the petiole) rather than peltate leaves (petiole joins the lamina near the middle) (Onwueme 1999). In Hawaii, 27 main groups of taro cultivars were recognised in 1880. By 1935 only eight main groups were recognised, and many cultivars within each group had been lost (Cho et al. 2007).

In Japan the numerous minor cultivars have been divided into nine main groups on morphological and storage protein characters by Hirai et al. (1989): Eguimo, Dodare, Ishikawa-wase, Tonoimo, Akame, Migashiki, Binroshin, Yatsugashira and Takenokoimo. These cultivar groups included both dasheen and eddoe types. Matsuda (2002) recognised eleven cultivar groups for Japan, based on restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) in rDNA. Most of these corresponded with those of Hirai et al. (1989), but some were different.

In China Xu et al. (2001) grouped 20 traditional cultivars from Yunnan according to ethnobotanical, agro-morphological and genetic characteristics into six major morphotypes:



  • Inflorescence morphotype (sometimes referred to as Colocasia tonoimo and grown for its edible inflorescence) – Kaihuayu or kaihua-yutou (Yoshino 2002)

  • Single-corm morphotype (more or less equivalent to dasheen type) – Daziyu, Huanggengyu, Lugengdayutou, Shuiyu, Pobule, Byongmanizong

  • Multicormel morphotype (equivalent, in part, to eddoe type) – Bulena, Bulece, Bulene, Byongmasongho, Byongmane, Byongmazabyong, Byongmaayo, Bigeana, Bikuobine, Achichibiu, Byongmaayopiu, Qingu, Zhongyu

  • Multicorm morphotype (equivalent, in part, to eddoe type) – Gouzhuayu, Mianhuayu, Mibiu

  • Petiole morphotype (grown for its edible petioles, corms are of poor quality) – Caiyu

  • Stolon morphotype (more or less equivalent to Colocasia esculenta var. aquatilis) – Wangenyu, Yingjiangyeyu

Taro cultivars grown in Australia

Most taro produced in Australia is broadly categorised as Taro Pacific, the dasheen type, which is also imported from Fiji and Tonga (Vinning 2003). Within this category, the most common cultivars are:



  • Bun-long or Pan Long Wu, a soft cooking type believed to originate in China (Bown 2000) with white flesh and purple flecks, favoured particularly by the Asian community (Chay-Prove and Goebel 2004; Daniells et al. 2004; Horsburgh and Noller 2005)

  • Taro Nuie or Tausala ni Samoa, a pink taro sourced from Samoa, favoured particularly by Pacific Islanders (Chay-Prove and Goebel 2004; Daniells et al. 2004)

  • Samoan Pink, a white fleshed variety with pink flecks and firm texture from Samoa , favoured particularly by Pacific Islanders (Chay-Prove and Goebel 2004; Daniells et al. 2004)

  • Taro Vietnam, a small dasheen type (clear skinned, no hairs) grown mainly as a backyard crop in Queensland and sometimes marketed through Vietnamese grocery shops (Vinning 2003).

Also, various Papua New Guinean dasheen cultivars are grown and eaten locally by Torres Strait Islanders (Chay-Prove and Goebel 2004)

Since about 1998 there has been increasing interest in cultivation of Taro Supreme, the eddoe type of taro, tentatively identified with the Japanese cultivar Ishikawa wase (Vinning 2003). The local cultivar of this form is mainly that known as NORADA 1 (Midmore et al. 2006). Taro Supreme is cultivated particularly in the Northern Rivers district of New South Wales, with smaller plantations in northern Queensland and south-west of Darwin (Vinning 2003; Hicks and Nguyen 2004). Trials are also being undertaken in Western Australia. Processed Taro Supreme is imported into Australia from China as frozen, peeled or brined products, either alone or as mixed vegetables (Vinning 2003). Import of fresh eddoe type taro is currently prohibited (Public Quarantine Alert 0482, 23 May 2006), as detailed in the background to this pest risk analysis.

Taro weed potential

Taro propagation, both in cultivation and in the wild, is predominantly by vegetative means (Purseglove 1972; Onwueme 1999). Flowering and seeding in cultivars is rare, with the notable exception of one cultivar (known as Colocasia esculenta ‘Inflorescence morphotype’, Kaihuayu, kaihua-yutou or Colocasia tonoimo) in Yunnan, China, which is grown predominantly for its edible inflorescences (Xu et al. 2001; Yoshino 2002). However, Kreike et al. (2004) noted that flowering and seeding was common in wild type Colocasia esculenta in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.

The lateral corms of the dasheen type of taro can be removed as propagating material, and in the wild they may give rise to their own crop of daughter corms. A number of wild-type dasheen taro can also form long stolons and propagate and spread from these (Ivancic and Lebot 1999). One selection in Yunnan is cultivated for these stolons (Colocasia esculenta ‘Stolon morphotype’, Wangenyu, Yingjiangyeyu) (Xu et al. 2001).

The eddoe type of taro has a smaller central corm and produces many more (up to 200) daughter corms laterally. These daughter corms are all capable of growing if detached, and each will potentially produce a large number of daughter corms of their own in the next season.



In Australia Colocasia esculenta is considered to be native in the Northern Territory, but naturalised in Western Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, and on Christmas Island, Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island (CHAH 2009). Colocasia esculenta was included in a list of the 200 most invasive plants in SE Queensland by Batianoff and Butler (2002). Hicks and Nguyen (2004) cautioned about disposal of waste corms of the eddoe (var. antiquorum) type, noting that they have the potential to become an invasive weed species. Groves et al. (2005) listed Colocasia esculenta as one of the ten most invasive plants still being sold by nurseries in Queensland, and a problem in some localities in Queensland. Although first recorded as naturalised in Queensland in 1994, it is now known to be spread along many rivers and creeks, with the potential to become a major weed along Queensland’s coasts and in northern NSW.
Colocasia esculenta is listed as invasive in Florida, USA (Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council 2009; Miller et al. 2009; Florida Department of Environmental Protection 2006). Three varieties of this plant are recorded for Florida: Colocasia esculenta var. esculenta, Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum and Colocasia esculenta var. aquatilis. Thompson (2000) and Christman (2006) indicate most weedy taro plants in the USA are of the stoloniferous form (Colocasia esculenta var. aquatilis). These plants form dense stands along streams, rivers, marshy lakeshores, canals and ditches, and clumps can break loose, forming floating islands that block navigational access and increase flooding potential in canals (Florida Department of Environmental Protection 2006). Colocasia esculenta is listed as potentially noxious in Oklahoma (Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation 2009), and South Carolina (Miller et al. 2009).

Glossary

Term or abbreviation

Definition

Additional declaration

A statement that is required by an importing country to be entered on a phytosanitary certificate and which provides specific additional information on a consignment in relation to regulated pests (FAO 2010).

Appropriate level of protection (ALOP)

The level of protection deemed appropriate by the Member establishing a sanitary or phytosanitary measure to protect human, animal or plant life or health within its territory (WTO 1995).

Area

An officially defined country, part of a country or all or parts of several countries (FAO 2010).

Area of low pest prevalence

An area, whether all of a country, part of a country, or all parts of several countries, as identified by the competent authorities, in which a specific pest occurs at low levels and which is subject to effective surveillance, control or eradication measures (FAO 2010).

Biosecurity Australia

A prescribed agency within the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry. Biosecurity Australia provides science-based quarantine assessments and policy advice that protects Australia’s favourable pest and disease status and enhances Australia’s access to international animal and plant related markets.

Certificate

An official document which attests to the phytosanitary status of any consignment affected by phytosanitary regulations (FAO 2010).

Consignment

A quantity of plants, plant products and/or other articles being moved from one country to another and covered, when required, by a single phytosanitary certificate (a consignment may be composed of one or more commodities or lots) (FAO 2010).

Control (of a pest)

Suppression, containment or eradication of a pest population (FAO 2010).

Dasheen

Agronomic name for the large corm variety of taro, Colocasia esculenta var. esculenta.

Eddoe

Agronomic name for the small corm variety of taro, Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum.

Endangered area

An area where ecological factors favour the establishment of a pest whose presence in the area will result in economically important loss (FAO 2010).

Entry (of a pest)

Movement of a pest into an area where it is not yet present, or present but not widely distributed and being officially controlled (FAO 2010).

Establishment

Perpetuation, for the foreseeable future, of a pest within an area after entry (FAO 2010).

Fresh

Living; not dried, deep-frozen or otherwise conserved (FAO 2010).

Fruits and vegetables

A commodity class for fresh parts of plants intended for consumption or processing and not for planting (FAO 2010).

Host range

Species capable, under natural conditions, of sustaining a specific pest or other organism (FAO 2010).

Import Permit

Official document authorising importation of a commodity in accordance with specified phytosanitary import requirements (FAO 2010).

Import Risk Analysis

An administrative process through which quarantine policy is developed or reviewed, incorporating risk assessment, risk management and risk communication.

Infestation (of a commodity)

Official document authorising importation of a commodity in accordance with specified phytosanitary import requirements (FAO 2010).

Inspection

Official visual examination of plants, plant products or other regulated articles to determine if pests are present and/or to determine compliance with phytosanitary regulations (FAO 2010).

Intended use

Declared purpose for which plants, plant products, or other regulated articles are imported, produced, or used (FAO 2010).

Interception (of a pest)

The detection of a pest during inspection or testing of an imported consignment (FAO 2010).

International Standard for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM)

An international standard adopted by the Conference of the Food and Agriculture Organization, the Interim Commission on phytosanitary measures or the Commission on phytosanitary measures, established under the IPCC (FAO 2010).

Introduction

The entry of a pest resulting in its establishment (FAO 2010).

Lot

A number of units of a single commodity, identifiable by its homogeneity of composition, origin etc., forming part of a consignment (FAO 2010).

National Plant Protection Organization (NPPO)

Official service established by a government to discharge the functions specified by the IPPC (FAO 2010).

Official control

The active enforcement of mandatory phytosanitary regulations and the application of mandatory phytosanitary procedures with the objective of eradication or containment of quarantine pests or for the management of regulated non-quarantine pests (FAO 2010).

Pathway

Any means that allows the entry or spread of a pest (FAO 2010).

Pest

Any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal, or pathogenic agent injurious to plants or plant products (FAO 2010).

Pest categorisation

The process for determining whether a pest has, or does not have, the characteristics of a quarantine pest or those of a regulated non-quarantine pest (FAO 2010).

Pest Free Area (PFA)

An area in which a specific pest does not occur as demonstrated by scientific evidence and in which, where appropriate, this condition is being officially maintained (FAO 2010).

Pest free place of production

Place of production in which a specific pest does not occur as demonstrated by scientific evidence and in which, where appropriate, this condition is being officially maintained for a defined period (FAO 2010).

Pest free production site

A defined portion of a place of production in which a specific pest does not occur as demonstrated by scientific evidence and in which, where appropriate, this conditions is being officially maintained for a defined period and that is managed as a separate unit in the same way as a pest free place of production (FAO 2010).

Pest Risk Analysis (PRA)

The process of evaluating biological or other scientific and economic evidence to determine whether an organism is a pest, whether it should be regulated, and the strength of any phytosanitary measures to be taken against it (FAO 2010).

Pest risk assessment (for

quarantine pests)

Evaluation of the probability of the introduction and spread of a pest and of the associated potential economic consequences (FAO 2010).

Pest risk management (for

quarantine pests)

Evaluation and selection of options to reduce the risk of introduction and spread of a pest (FAO 2010).

pH

The measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.

Phellogen

Plant meristem (growth layer) responsible for secondary growth of a corky protective layer.

Phytosanitary Certificate

Certificate patterned after the model certificates of the IPPC (FAO 2010).

Phytosanitary measure

Any legislation, regulation or official procedure having the purpose to prevent the introduction and/or spread of quarantine pests, or to limit the economic impact of regulated non-quarantine pests (FAO 2010).

Phytosanitary regulation

Official rule to prevent the introduction and/or spread of quarantine pests, or to limit the economic impact of regulated non-quarantine pests, including establishment of procedures for phytosanitary certification (FAO 2010).

Polyphagous

Feeding on a relatively large number of hosts from different genera.

PRA area

Area in relation to which a Pest Risk Analysis is conducted (FAO 2010).

Quarantine pest

A pest of potential economic importance to the area endangered thereby and not yet present there, or present but not widely distributed and being officially controlled (FAO 2010).

Regulated article

Any plant, plant product, storage place, packing, conveyance, container, soil and any other organism, object or material capable of harbouring or spreading pests, deemed to require phytosanitary measures, particularly where international transportation is involved (FAO 2010).

Restricted risk

Risk estimate with phytosanitary measure(s) applied.

Spread

Expansion of the geographical distribution of a pest within an area (FAO 2010).

SPS Agreement

WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (WTO 1995).

Stakeholders

Government agencies, individuals, community or industry groups or organizations, whether in Australia or overseas, including the proponent/applicant for a specific proposal, who have an interest in the policy issues.

Systems approach(es)

The integration of different risk management measures, at least two of which act independently, and which cumulatively achieve the appropriate level of protection against regulated pests (FAO 2010).

Unrestricted risk

Unrestricted risk estimates apply in the absence of risk mitigation measures.

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