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- Frontier Critique 1NC [1/3]
ExplanationThe frontier critique takes issue not with the plan action itself, but rather the way the plan justifies itself. Critiques frequently argue that the “framing” of the plan is inappropriate, and that we should not justify a potential action on those terms. Critiques argue that different justifications for the same plan or action produce different results. As a simple example, consider the abolition of slavery. Before slavery was made illegal, there were several different groups arguing that the slaves should be made free. One group, known as abolitionists, argued that slaves should be free because all humans have equal rights. Another group was in favor of recolonization. They argued for the same goal, that slavery should be abolished, but their reasons were that blacks were beneath whites and incapable of living in white society. Freed slaves, they argued, would ultimately return to Africa and America would be rid of its race problem forever. Can you see how the same plan with different justifications could produce extremely different results? The frontier critique makes the same type of argument, even though the faulty justification is nowhere near as obvious as it is in the slavery example. The critique argues that the way that people talk about space exploration and colonization in the status quo is very similar to the way that they spoke of Manifest Destiny and the colonization of the western United States in the 19th century. Manifest destiny was the idea that Americans were chosen to expand and settle the country all the way from the east coast the Pacific Ocean. The idea of the “frontier,” a romantic place where settlers would travel to, became very popular. The frontier was depicted as a place of freedom and near limitless opportunity and resource, existing in a pristine state simply to be taken. Many historians believe that this attitude, this notion of entitlement that the west and its resources “belonged” to America, legitimated some very horrible actions. For example, the buffalo, which used to be extremely plentiful on the western plains, nearly went extinct as Americans went westward to claim what they believed as their. More tragically, Americans fought many wars against the Indian tribes, forcing them off land that they had lived on for hundreds of years, because of a faulty belief that the land had been reserved for Americans. How does this relate to space exploration? The disadvantage argues that space has replaced the west in our imaginations as the next frontier, the next location reserved for American expansion. Have you ever heard of space referred to as “the final frontier?” President Kennedy’s famous speech that began the Space Race in 1961 said that space was something that could be “explored and mastered.” Some believe that this belief that space has limitless resources that could solve the problems on Earth is equivalent to the romantic view of the frontier in the 19th century. Ultimately, they feel if we continue to think of space just as the people of the 19th century though of the west, we will ultimately commit regrettable actions like the settlers did then. GlossaryManifest destiny - The 19th-century doctrine or belief that the expansion of the United States throughout the American continents was both justified and inevitable. Mobilizing - Organize and encourage people to act in a certain way in order to bring about a particular political objective Military industrial complex - A country's military establishment and those industries producing arms or other military materials Frontier – The edge of a nation’s territory. More than just a border, a frontier is a place where it is expected that a country’s settlers will eventually move to and assimilate. Metaphor - A thing regarded as representative or symbolic of something else, esp. something abstract. Many think that the frontier and manifest destiny have become the guiding metaphor for space exploration Astroenvironmentalism – Applying the principles of environmentalism to the space environment. Instead of viewing it as something to be exploited, we should view it as something to be preserved for its own sake. Jurisprudence - The theory or philosophy of law. Myth - A traditional story, esp. one concerning the early history of a people or explaining some natural or social phenomenon, and typically involving supernatural beings or events. Materialistic - A tendency to consider material possessions and physical comfort as more important than spiritual values. Rhetoric - Language designed to have a persuasive or impressive effect on its audience, but often regarded as lacking in sincerity or meaningful content Discourse - Written or spoken communication or debate. Terraformating – the act of making another planet like Earth by changing its climate or other fundamental geological features. Frontier Critique 1NC [1/3]A. Link. Current plans for exploration and development are a product of the idea of the frontier and manifest destiny from America’s past. The affirmative sets out to colonize and master the new frontier of space, which paves the way for future conflict. Linda Billings, Manager of Communications, NASA Astrobiology Program, 1997, “Frontier Days in Space: Are they Over?” http://lindabillings.org/papers.html The rationale of the US space programme, a rationale conceived by the USA’s military-industrial complex, persistently retains the idea of manifest destiny as a mobilizing concept. As the theory of historical materialism explains, history is not a matter of ‘destiny’ but human-made. Nonetheless, the rhetoric of manifest destiny still permeates public discourses on national identity and national security; and space exploration is still described as pioneering the frontier, conquering the unknown, exploiting space resources. The cold war rhetoric and today’s rhetoric are virtually the same. This sort of thinking reinforced the idea that conquest and exploitation are reasonable ends for space exploration. US space exploration initiatives today are ostensibly intended to promote global leadership, economic competitiveness, scientific excellence, and technological progress. But the idea of conquest and exploitation for the sake of profit is an insidious threat to achieving any of these ends. With the Cold War over and the entire world accessible, the military-industrial complex is extending the doctrine of manifest destiny into outer space. In the late 20th century the common wisdom is that humankind has conquered nature here on Earth. Now the conquerors who run the military-industrial complex are looking towards the chaos and emptiness of space as new territory to claim and tame. As the doctrine of manifest destiny was used to justify purging US territory of indigenous residents, it is being used to justify clearing the way into space. Hence space enthusiasts continue to speculate about mining the asteroids and staking claims on the Moon, proposals immediately started surfacing for developing the Moon and the asteroids. Aerospace industries continue to air plans for expanding their businesses into outer space. Lockheed Martin executive James Blackwell has expressed the corporate viewpoint very well: “In the 20th century we have called space ‘The Final Frontier’. In the 21st century we will call it something new. We call it ‘Open for Business’.”6 (It is worth noting also that the USA refuses to ratifuy the 1979 UN Agreement governing the Activiities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies because it prohibits sovereign claims on extraterrestrial property.) It is undoubtedly possible that space exploration could degenerate into the kind of conquest and exploitation that characterized the West’s domination over what is now called the developing world. Thus, NASA and its partners in space should be vigilant in their efforts to avoid repeating past mistakes. Exploration for the purpose of aiding and abetting conquest and exploitation will not build a sound foundation for humanity’s future in space. Initiatives intended to conquer and exploit, to fence off bits and pieces of the Solar System and extend private property rights into space, are not worthy of public funding. 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