Sonora’s Anti-Chinese Movement and State Formation
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NewspapersEl Heraldo, Mexico City.El Intruso, Cananea, Sonora. El Machete, Mexico City. El Nacional Revolucionario, Mexico City. El Observador, Hermosillo, Sonora.ProPatria, Magdalena, Sonora El Universal, Mexico City. References Aguilar Camín H. (1977) La frontera nomada: Sonora y la Revolución Mexicana. México City: Siglo XXI. Aguilar Camín H. (1982) Saldos de la Revolución. Cultura y política de México, 1910-1980. México City: Nueva Imagen. Aguilar Camín H. & Meyer L. (1993) In the Shadow of the Mexican Revolution. Austin: University of Texas Press. Almada Bay I. (1992) Maytorenismo, rebelión indigena y violencia social. In Memoria XVII Simposio de Historia y Antropología de Sonora vol. 2 (19-78). Hermosillo: Universidad de Sonora. Alonso A.M (1995) Thread of Blood, Colonialism, Revolution and Gender on México’s Northern Frontier. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Archivo de Historia Oral - Universidad Hebrea de Jerusalen (1990) Testimonios de Historia Oral. Judíos en México, México: Universidad Hebrea de Jerusalen/Asociación Mexicana Amigos de la UHJ. Barth G. (1964) Bitter Strength. A History of the Chinese in the United States, 1850-1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Basave Benitez A. (1992) México mestizo. Análisis del Nacionalismo mexicano en torno a la mestizofilia de Andres Molina Enríquez. México City: Fondo de Cultura Economica. Brading D.A (1988) Darwinismo social e idealismo romántico. Andres Molina Enríquez y José Vasconcelos en la Revolución Mexicana. In his Mito y profecía en la historia de México. (172-205) México City: Vuelta, 1988. Brading D.A. (1988) Manuel Gamio and Official Indigenismo in México. Bulletin of Latin American Research, Vol.7, 75-89. Cardiel R. (1997) La migración china en el norte de Baja California. In Ota M.E. (ed.) Destino México. Un estudio de las migraciones asiáticas a México, siglos XIX y XX. (189-255) México City: El Colegio de México. Carr B. (1973) Las peculiaridades del norte mexicano, 18801927: ensayo de interpretación. Historia Mexicana XXII, 32-46. Castillo P. and Camarillo A. (1973) Furia y Muerte. Los Bandidos Chicanos. Los Angeles: Aztlan Publications. Chen J. (1980) The Chinese of America. New York: Harper & Row. Clavijero J.F. (1974) Historia Antigua de México. México City: Porrua Editores. Comite Organizador (1930) Como estamos organizando un gran partido de principios en el estado. Hermosillo. Cordova A (1973) La ideología de la Revolución Mexicana. La formación del nuevo régimen. México City: Ediciones Era. Cordova A. (1995) La Revolución en crisis. La aventura del maximato. México City: Cal y Arena. Corrigan P. & Sayer D. (1985) The Great Arch: English State Formation as Cultural Revolution. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Corral R. (1959) Las razas indígenas de Sonora (195-260). In Obras históricas. Hermosillo: Gobierno del Estado de Sonora. Cortez F. (1943) Sonora y Sinaloa recogen los frutos de la campaña Anti-China iniciada por José Maria Arana y consumada por Felipe Cortez G. de 1919 a 1930. Resena. Hermosillo: n/p. Cumberland C. (1960) The Sonoran Chinese and the Mexican Revolution. Hispanic American Historical Review vol. 14, 191-211. de la Huerta A. (1917) Informe que rinde al H. Congreso del Estado el gobernador provisional de Sonora C. Adolfo de la Huerta para el período comprendido entre el 19 de mayo de 1916 a junio de 1917. Hermosillo: Imprenta del Gobierno del Estado. Dennis P. (1979) The Anti-Chinese Campaign in Sonora, México. Ethnohistory, vol. 28, 65-79. Dulles J.W.F. Ayer en México. Una crónica de la revolución (1919-1936). México City: Fondo de Cultura Economica. Elías Calles P. (1915) Tierras y libros para todos. Programa del gobierno del general Plutarco Elías Calles. Nacozari: Talleres de Imprenta de Gregorio Moreno. Espinoza J.A. (1932) El ejemplo de Sonora. México City: n/p. Espinoza J.A. (1931) El problema chino en México. México City: Editorial Porrua.
Gould J. (1998) To Die In This Way. Nicaragua Indians and the Myth of Mestizaje, 1880-1965. Durham: Duke University Press. Gramsci A (1971) Selections from Prison Notebooks. New York: International Publishers. Guy D. (1995) Sex and Danger in Buenos Aires. Prostitution, Family and Nation in Argentina. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. Hall S. et. al. (1978) Policing the crisis. Mugging, the state, and Law and Order. New York: Holmes & Meier. Harris M. (1964) Patterns of Race in the Americas. New York: Walker. Hobsbawn E.J. (1990) Nations and Nationalism since 1780. Programme, myth, reality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hu-deHart E. (1980) Inmigrants to a Developing Society: the Chinese in Northern México, 1875-1932. Journal of Arizona History, vol. 21, 49-86. Hu-deHart E. (1985) La comunidad china en el desarrollo de Sonora In Gobierno del Estado de Sonora, Historia General de Sonora (vol. IV: 195-211). Hermosillo: Gobierno del Estado de Sonora. Hum Lee R. (1960) The Chinese in the United States of America. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Katz F. (1974) Labor Conditions on Porfirian Haciendas: Some Trends and Tendencies. Hispanic American Historical Review vol. 54, 1-47. Knight A. (1986) The Mexican Revolution (2 vols.). Lincoln: Nebraska University Press. Knight A. (1987) U.S.-Mexican Relations. An Interpretation. San Diego: Center for U.S-Mexican Studies. Knight A. (1990) Racism, Revolution and Indigenismo: México, 1910-1940. In R. Graham (Ed.), The Idea of Race in Latin America (71-114). Austin: University of Texas Press. Krauze E. (1995) Alvaro Obregón, El vértigo de la victoria. México City: Fondo de Cultura Economica. Krauze E. (1999) Plutarco Elías Calles. Reformar desde el origen. México City: FCE. Lopez Victoria J.M. (1965) Campaña nacionalista. México City: Botas. Martinez Assad C. (1979) El laboratorio de la revolución: el Tabasco garridista. México City: Siglo XXI. Matute A. (1980) La carrera del caudillo. México City: El Colegio de México. Maytorena J.M. (1919) Algunas verdades sobre el general Alvaro Obregón. Los Angeles: El Heraldo. Meyer J.& Krauze E. (1981) Estado y Sociedad con Calles. México City: El Colegio de México. Meyer J. (1994) La Cristiada. El conflicto entre la iglesia y el estado 1926-1929. México City: Siglo XXI. Meyer L., Segovia R. & Lajous A. (1978) El conflicto social y los gobiernos del maximato, México City: El Colegio de México. Miller S.C. (1969) The Unwelcome Immigrant. The American Image of the Chinese, 1785-1882. Berkeley: University of California Press. Molina Enríquez A. (1983) Los grandes problemas nacionales (1909) y otros textos, prologue by Arnaldo Cordova. México City: Ediciones Era. Molina Enríquez A.(1985) La revolución agraria en México. México City: INEHRM. Monsivais C. (1976) Notas sobre la cultura mexicana en el siglo XX. In Historia General de México. México City: Colegio de México. Moreno R. (1989) Introduction In Moreno R. (ed.) La polémica del darwinismo en México (17-42) México City: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Olivera Sedano A. (1987) Aspectos del conflicto religioso de 1926 a 1929. Sus antecedents y consecuencias. México City: SEP. Omi, M. & Winant, H. (1994) Racial Formation in the United States. From the 1960s to 1990s. New York: Routledge. Pacheco J.E. (1983) La Patria Perdida. Notas sobre Clavijero y la Cultura Nacional.. In Aguilar Camín H. et al. En torno a la cultura nacional (15-50) México City: CONACULTA-INI, 1983. Paz I. (1925) Life and Adventures of the Celebrated Bandit Joaquin Murrieta. His Exploits in the State of California. Chicago.
Powell T.G. (1968) Mexican Intellectuals and the Indian Question, 1876-1911. Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. XLVIII, 19-36. Puig J. (1992) Entre el río Perla y el Nazas. La China decimonónica y sus braceros inmigrantes, la colonia china de Torreon y la masacre de 1911. México City: CONACULTA. Raat D. (1970) Los intelectuales, el positivismo y la cuestión indigena. Historia Mexicana, vol. XX, 412-427. Radding C. (1985) Sonora y los sonorenses: el proceso social de la revolución de 1910. Secuencia, n.3, 17-28 Ramirez J., Leon R., and Conde O.(1985) La estrategia económica de los Callistas. In Gobierno del Estado, Historia General de Sonora, vol. 5, 69-78. Hermosillo: Gobierno del Estado de Sonora. Rénique G (1990) Frontier Capitalism and Revolution in Northwest México, Sonora, 1830-1910, Ph Dissertation, Columbia University. Rénique G. (1999) Between a Rock and a Hard Place. México’s Chinese and the Ascendance of Nationalism in Asia and Latin America, 1920-1930. Paper read at the International Conference on Chinese Diaspora in Latin America and the Caribbean, La Habana, Cuba, December 1999. Rivera A. (1981) La Revolución en Sonora. Hermosillo: Gobierno del Estado Roberts B. (1992) The Place of Regions in México. In E. Van Young (ed.), México’s Regions. Comparative History and Development (227-245). San Diego: Center for US-Mexican Relations. Roediger D. (1991) The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class. London: Verso. Romero Gil M. (1993) Las minas de Sonora durante la Revolución: nacionalismo regional contra inversionistas extranjeros 1911-1918, In Memoria XVI Simposio de Historia y Antropología de Sonora (MSHAS). 435-456 Hermosillo: Universidad de Sonora. Ruiz R.E. (1988) The People of Sonora and Yankee Capitalism. Tucson: The University of Arizona Press. Sanchez Lira R. (1956) Iluminación Nacionalista. México City: Ediciones Luz. Saxton A. (1971) The Indispensable Enemy. Labor and the Anti-Chinese Movement in California. Berkeley: University of California. Saxton A. (1990) The Rise and Fall of the White Republic. Class Politics and Mass Culture in Ninenteenth Century America. London: Verso. Stabb M.(1959) Indigenism and Racism in Mexican Thought: 1857-1911. Journal of Inter-American Studies, vol. 9, 405-423. Stepan N. (1991) The Hour of Eugenics. Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Tinker Salas M. (1997) In the Shadow of the Eagles: Sonora and the Transformation of the Border During the Porfiriato. Berkeley: University of California Press. Trueba Lara, J. (1989) La xenofobia en la legislación sonorense: el caso de los chinos. XIII Simposio de Historia y Antropología de Sonora (341-373). Hermosillo: Universidad de Sonora. Turner F. (1968) La dinámica del nacionalismo mexicano. México City: Grijalbo. Valenzuela C. (ed.). Sonora y Carranza, Hermosillo: n/p, n/d. Vasconcelos J. (1983) Ulises Criollo (2da. parte). México City: Secretaria de Educación Publica. Vasconcelos J. (1997) Breve Historia de México. México City: Trillas. Villoro L. (1996) Los grandes momentos del indigenismo mexicano. México City: Colegio de México. Zea L. (1944) Apogeo y decadencia del positivismo en México. México City: El Colegio de México. 1For recent reassessment of the role of race in the construction of mestizaje, national identities and state formation in Latin America, see for example Helg A. (1995) Our Rightful Share. The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality, 1886-1912. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press; Ferrer A. (1999) Insurgent Cuba: Race, Nation and Revolution, 1868-1898. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press; Grandin G. (2000) The Blood of Guatemala. A History of Race and Nation. Durham: Duke University Press.; de la Cadena M. (2000) Indigenous Mestizos. The Politics of Race and Culture in Cuzco, Peru, 1919-1991. Durham: Duke University Press. For the U.S. as a racial dictatorship see Omi M. & Winant (1994:65-69). Popularized in the United States in the comparative analysis of Harris M. (1964), the concept was first formulated by Freyre G. ([1933] 1986). For reassessment and criticism of this concept see Winant H. (1994) Rethinking Race in Brazil. In Racial Conditions. Politics, Theory, Comparisons (130-147). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 2 See, Gonzalez Navarro (1974, 1994), Knight (1987) and Jonathan Brown (1983) Foreign and Native-Born Workers in Porfirian Mexico. American Historical Review vol. 98, 768-818. 3 These two decades of revolutionary disorder were punctuated in the first place by the so-called constitucionalista insurrection that following the assassination of president Francisco Madero in April 1913 resisted the counterrevolutionary regime led by the porfirista general Victoriano Huerta. In the second place by the civil war between revolutionary fractions that extended from the defeat of Huerta in mid 1914 to the victorious 1920 rebellion of Agua Prieta led by the Sonoran revolutionaries. Under the military leadership of Alvaro Obregón the Sonoran forces organized in the Ejercito del Noroeste played a pivotal role in the victory against Porfirian reaction and in the consolidation of the constitucionalista regime led by Venustiano Carranza. Obregón also led the constitucionalista army that defeated the more popular and radical forces led by Francisco Villa (Division del Norte) and Emiliano Zapata (Ejercito del Sur). For analysis, assessment and discussion of the nature and consequences of the Mexican Revolution see, Gilly (1971) and Knight (1986). For the role of the Sonorans in the revolution see Aguilar Camín 1977). 4 Between 1910 and 1919, 550 Americans, 471 Chinese, 209 Spaniards and 111 Arabs were murdered, figures that represented 2.66%, 3.25%, 0.85% and 7.25% of their respective populations. The 1910 official census recorded 1,531 Arabs, 13,203 Chinese, 24,409 Spanish and 20,633 Americans. González Navarro M. (1974: 74-86). See also Knight A. (1986: vol. 1: 44, 150, 279), and Turner F. (1968:259-322). 5 The 1910 national census recorded for Sonora: 4,486 Chinese, 3,164 Americans, 259 Spanish and 183 Germans. The total number of Chinese in Mexico was 13,203. After Sonora the largest Chinese populations were concentrated in México City with 1,482 individuals, Chihuahua with 1,325, Yucatan with 875 and Sinaloa with 667. Including undocumented individuals not registered the total number of Chinese in México reached approximately 15,000. In 1927 the Secretaria de Gobernación registered 24,218 Chinese established in México. Its geographical distribution differed greatly from the 1910 pattern.. The development of cotton production and the Sonoran anti-Chinese campaigns influenced the increase of the Chinese population in Baja California that between 1910 and 1927 expanded from 532 to 5,889. Sonora followed it with 3,758, Sinaloa with 2,019, Chiapas with 1,265, México City with 1,602 and Chihuahua with 1,037. Hu-deHart E.(1985:197-201). For attacks against Americans see Knight A. (1986, vol.1: 68-70, 79-80, 158-162, 342-344) and Knight (1987: 53-70). 6 See Consular Reports in National Archives -- Records of the Department of State Relating to the Internal Affairs of México, 1910-1929 (NARA-Mex). Microcopy 274, Rolls 10 & 11. Since American owned mining corporations in Sonora constituted the most import source of revenue and loans for the constitucionalista regime they were not affected in their functioning and operations. For constitucionalista policy towards American businesses in Sonora see, Aguilar Camín H. (1967: 406 - 415) and Knight A (1986, vol.2: 412). See also, Romero Gil M. (1993: 435-456). 7 In 1913 Sonora had 238 non-Chinese businesses with capitals of more than 20 thousand pesos with a total investment of more than 18 million pesos; and 17 Chinese businesses with less than 800 thousand pesos of total investment. Six years later the former (Americans, Mexicans, Arabs and Europeans) had increased its commercial establishments to 827 with a capital of 2 ‘813,540 pesos; and the later to 434 with an investment of 2’186,935 pesos. See Hu-deHart E. (1986: 200-205), and also Hu-deHart (1980: 49-86). 8 For the Torreon massacre see Puig J. (1992: 177-228) and González Navarro M. (1974: 60-61). For attacks against Chinese in Sonora see Cumberland C. (1960:191-211) and Dennis P. (1979: 65-79). 9 It is estimated that between 1910 and 1920 more than 100 Chinese were assassinated in the state of Sonora. See Hu-deHart, E. (1985: 203), Cumberland C. (1960) and Archivo Histórico General del Estado de Sonora (AHGES) “Tranquilidad Publica” and “Quejas de Chinos,” T. 2777 (1912), T. 3061 (1916), T. 3138 (1917), T. 3141 (1917), T. 3327 (1919) and T. 3449 (1920). 10 More than 40% of the 6.078 Chinese registered in Sonora in 1919 were established in the border district of Arizpe and in the southern district of Guaymas. Nacozari and Cananea, the two most important mining towns in the state, and the border commercial center of Nogales were located in the former; and the port of Guaymas, the Yaqui Valley towns of Cajeme, Cócorit y Torin and Navojoa in the Mayo Valley in the later. Three fourths of the 5,753 working Chinese were dedicated to commerce. Of the total number of 827 Chinese commercial businesses in Sonora, 740 counted with capitals between 1,500 and 5,000 pesos; 76 between 5,000 and 10,000; and 11 with capitals larger than 10,000 pesos. 1,495 individuals reported occupations as launderer, vegetable grower, miner, artisan and day laborer. Hu-deHart E. (1985: 200-2). For a discussion of the participation of the different Sonoran areas in the Revolution see Aguilar Camín H. (1977) and Gerardo Rénique (1990: 482-534). 11 Rénique G. (1990: 42-47, 254-266). See also Ruiz (1988) 12 See Roberts B. (1992) and Carr (1973) and Tinker Salas (1997). 13 The concept of “racial common sense” was formulated following Omi and Winant (1994: 59-60) assertion that every day racial expressions and understandings constitute micro-social formulations of more complex racial projects that together conform the racial formation. Racial Formation, 59-60. I have also taken in consideration Gramsci’s (1971: 182) concept of “common sense” as the changing product of political struggle and as key element for attaining hegemony. For the ideology of honor in a frontier context see Alonso A.M. (1995). 14 Born in Sonora, Corral served as governor of the state between 1887 and 1991, later as governor of México City between 1900 and 1903, and from 1904 to 1911 as vice-President of México. 15 For a discussion of Lamarckian and neo-Lamarckian concepts among México’s scientist see Stepan N. (1991: 55-58, 128-133) and Moreno R. (1989) 16 Corral R. (1959:195-260). 17 Maytorena (1919:78). 18 Quoted in Almada (1992: 10). 19 See Castillo P and Camarillo A. (1973:33-51) and also Paz I. (1925). For a good discussion of the motivations behind the extreme Mexican animosity against the Chinese see Barth G. (1964:143-144). 20 During the summer of 1849 between 10,000 and 15,000 Sonorans representing around 7% of the total population in the state traveled to the California gold placers. For a discussion of the nature of the northern frontier labor force see Katz (1974). For the centrality of anti-Chinese racism in the formation of California’s working class see Saxton A. (1971) and (1990:293-320). For a discussion of the relationship between race, racism and working class formation see Roediger D. (1991). For early ideological influences on Mexican workers in the United States see Gómez J. and Maciel D. (1981). 1981.
21 PLM 1906 Program in González Ramirez (1981:3-29) The anti-Chinese clause of the 1906 program was eliminated in their 1909 program apparently as a consequence of the PLM leftward turn and its emphasis on the responsibility of international capitalism in creating discord and tensions among workers. Other Mexican political formations like the Club Democratico Sonorense directed by Plutarco Elías Calles also include in its demands the prohibition of Chinese immigration. The maderista Plan de Jalisco advocated the prohibition of marriages between Mexican women and men of the “black” and “yellow” races. See González Navarro M. (1974: 59-60). 22 For the critical economic situation in Sonora see AHGES T. 3072 (2da. parte), 1916 - “Informes relativos a la situacion en el estado.” For a discussion of the problems caused by the imposition of new currency see Rivera (1981:421) and Aguilar Camín (1977: 424 ss). 23 By the end of 1916 the municipality of Caborca lost more than fifty percent of its male population due to emigration to the United States. See AHGES T. 3072, Starting with the 1849 migration to the gold deposits in California male emigration to the United States became part of the Sonorans economic strategies of survival, see Rénique (1990: 132-133). 24 As was the case of other Chinese diasporic communities the number of Chinese women in Mexico was also extremely low if not negligible. Although official statistics for 1927 and 1930 counted 1,772 and 2,522 women, out of a total Chinese population of 24,218 and 17,865 respectively, these figures also included Mexican women married to Chinese men. See chart n. 2 in Hu-deHart (1986:198). Directory: files -> filefield files -> Integer programming and game theory files -> 4 Integer Programming files -> Bpa vehicle Window Repair Scenario #1 task: Procure vehicle window relacement. Objective files -> Pop Warner History files -> North Carolina Inclusion Initiative Mapping Where Children with ieps are Being Served Purpose files -> Fall 2013 Spring 2014 Program Data: Standard 1 Exhibit 4d files -> Hanban – asia society confucius classrooms network 2010 request for proposal files -> Northern England’s set-jetting locations Download 237.02 Kb. Share with your friends:
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