State establishment "DnEpropetrovsk Medical Academy of health Ministry of Ukraine"



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On zygomatic bone:

  • frontal process

  • temporal process

  • zygomaticofacial foramen

  • zygomaticoorbital foramen

  • zygomaticotemporal foramen

On palatine bone:

  • perpendicular plate

  • horizontal plate

  • sphenoid process

  • orbital process

  • pyramidal process

  • sphenopalatine notch

On lacrimal bone:

  • posterior lacrimal crest

  • fossa for lacrimal sac

On hyoid bone:

  • body

  • greater horn

  • lesser horn



Self-taught class 6. Communications of cavities and fossae of the skull.
The aim: to learn the structure of cavities and fosses of the skull and their communications.

Professional orientation: knowledge of this topic is essential for medical students of all the specialities because of its necessity for further study; it is especially important for stomatologists, neurosurgeons, traumatologists, maxillofacial surgeons, neuropathologists, plastic surgeons and others, because this knowledge allows to understand the passing and topography of nerves and vessels and the propagation of inflammation.

The plan of self-taught class:

  1. Learn the structures of the orbit, define its bony walls.

  2. Learn the structures of the nasal cavity, its bony walls and division in nasal meatus.

  3. Learn the topography and structures of the hard palate.

  4. Learn the structure of walls of the pterygopalatine fossa.

  5. Learn the structure of temporal and infratemporal fosses.

  6. Write down and learn the communications of orbit.

  7. Write down and learn the communications of nasal meatus.

  8. Write down and learn the communications of pterygopalatine fossa.


Practice skills

Students are supposed to show the structures of bony walls of the cavities and fossae of the skull; to name the communications of the cavities and fossae of the skull and show them on the samples.



Self-taught class 7. The age features of skull, its X-rays anatomy.

The aim: to learn the structure of the skull on X-rays films.

Professional orientation: knowledge of this topic is essential for medical students of all the specialities because of its necessity for further study; it is especially important for stomatologists, neurosurgeons, traumatologists, maxillofacial surgeons, neuropathologists, plastic surgeons and others, because this knowledge allows to understand the normal and abnormal structures of the skull.

The plan of self-taught class:

  1. Learn the structures of the adult skull on X-rays films.

  2. Find the differences between adult skull and newborn skull.

  3. Find on skull the places where fontanelles are located in newborn child.

Written tests of skull

I. Tests of basic theory

  1. The orbital septum is attached to all the following EXCEPT the:

    1. anterior lacrimal crest

    2. lateral palpebral ligament

    3. posterior lacrimal crest

    4. *superior fornix of the conjunctival sac

    5. tarsal plate

  2. All the following paranasal sinuses drain into the middle meatus, EXCEPT:

    1. frontal

    2. maxillary

    3. *sphenoid

    4. anterior ethmoid

    5. middle ethmoid

  3. All of the following are associated with the occipital bone, EXCEPT:

    1. *exit of C.N. VII from the cranium

    2. hypoglossal canal

    3. exit of C.N. IX from the cranium

    4. pharyngobasilar fascia

  4. The sella turcica is a part of which bone:

    1. temporal

    2. *sphenoid

    3. ethmoid

    4. occipital

    5. lacrimal

  5. Arrange the following foramina from anterior to posterior:

(I) internal auditory meatus

(II) jugular foramen

(III) foramen ovale

(IV) foramen rotundum

(V) foramen spinosum


    1. 4 5 3 1 2

    2. *4 3 5 1 2

    3. 3 4 5 1 2

    4. 5 4 3 2 1

    5. 4 3 5 2 1

  1. Arrange the following from lateral to medial:

(I) infratemporal fossa

(II) nasal cavity

(III) pterygo-maxillary fissure

(IV) pterygo-palatine fossa



(V) sphenopalatine foramen

    1. 1 4 5 2 3

    2. 4 1 5 3 2

    3. 1 3 4 5 2

    4. 5 1 3 2 4

    5. *1 3 5 4 2

  1. The sagittal and coronal sutures meet at the:

    1. bregma

    2. *asterion

    3. pterion

    4. lambda

    5. glabella

  2. Bones involved in forming the anterial cranial fossa include all the following, EXCEPT:

    1. ethmoid

    2. frontal

    3. *parietal

    4. sphenoid

    5. all are involved

  3. Which of the following is NOT one of the ways in or out of the pterygopalatine fossa?

    1. pterygoid canal

    2. inferior orbital fissure

    3. pterygopalatine canal

    4. *foramen ovale

    5. foramen rotundum

  4. A 2 year old child was seen in the ER after hitting his forehead on the bathtub. X-rays showed a faint line of separation between the two frontal bones. No other findings were noted and the child was discharged home after a few hours of observation. Why?

    1. the family had no ability to pay and was without medical insurance

    2. a busy ER is no place for a 2 year old

    3. a small fracture will heal without problems in a child of this age

    4. *an interfrontal suture would be a normal finding in a 2 year old

    5. skull fracture without neurologic signs/symptoms needs no treatment

  5. Which of the following are matches?

    1. greater wing of the sphenoid - foramen ovale

    2. petrous part of the temporal bone - carotid canal

    3. maxilla - incisive foramen

    4. ethmoid - crista galli

    5. *all of the above are matches

  6. Which of the following is/are part/s of the occipital bone?

    1. clivus

    2. pharyngeal tubercle

    3. hypoglossal canal

    4. a and b

    5. *a, b and c

  7. A 48 year old man was hit in the head with a heavy blunt object breaking the orbital rim inferiorly, laterally and superiorly. Which of the following would you expect to see?

    1. fractured zygomatic bone

    2. fractured frontal bone

    3. fractured lacrimal bone

    4. *a and b

    5. a, b, and c

  8. All of the following are true concerning the sphenoid bone EXCEPT:

    1. it is located in the base of the skull

    2. *has consistently three large air cells

    3. has wings that extend laterally from its body

    4. articulates with eight bones

    5. is part of the anterior, middle, and posterior fossae

  9. Which of the following are part of the ethmoid bone?

    1. *crista galli

    2. perpendicular plate of the septum

    3. inferior concha

    4. a and b

    5. b and c

II. Tests from “Krok-1” database

  1. A 5-year-old child was admitted to the otorhinolaryngological department with diagnosis - suppurative inflammation of the middle ear. Disease started from the inflammation of the nasopharynx. Through what canal of the temporal bone did the infection get into the tympanic cavity?

    1. Tympanic (Canaliculus tympanicus)

    2. Canaliculi caroticotympanici

    3. Carotid canal

    4. Canaliculus chordal tympani

    5. *Musculortubal canal

  2. Purulence of orbit soft tissues took place after an eye's trauma. Through what anatomical formation can the purulent process spread to the middle cranial fossa?

    1. *Through the superior orbital fissure.

    2. Through the anterior ethmoidal foramen.

    3. Through the posterior ethmoidal foramen.

    4. Through the inferior orbital fissure.

    5. Through the zygomaticoorbital foramen.

  3. A casualty has a trauma of soft tissues and parietal bones in the sagittal suture area with profuse bleeding. What formation is probably injured?

    1. Sinus rectus.

    2. Sinus petrosus superior.

    3. *Sinus sagittalis superior.

    4. Sinus sagittalis inferior.

    5. Sinus transverses.

  4. During a meal milk gets into the nasal cavity of a newborn child. What is the probable cause of this pathology?

    1. Cleft clip.

    2. Nasal septum deviation to the right.

    3. Basal skull fracture.

    4. *Cleft palate.

    5. Nasal septum deviation to the left.

  5. During the first days of a newborn child a pediatrician detected that milk gets into the child's nasal cavity. What malformation does this fact indicate?

    1. *Non-closed palate.

    2. Diverticulum of esophagus.

    3. Esophageal atresia.

    4. Cleft clip.

    5. Esophagus constriction.

  6. Purulence of orbit soft tissues took place after an eye's trauma. Through what anatomical formation can the purulent process spread to the pterygopalatine fossa?

    1. Through the round foramen.

    2. *Through the inferior orbital fissure.

    3. Through the pterygoid canal.

    4. Through the superior orbital fissure.

    5. Through the zygomaticoorbital foramen.

  7. A sick has an acute inflammation of nasolacrimal duct mucous membrane. It is known that after influenza nasal discharges had been observed for a long time. From what part of the nasal cavity could the infection get to the nasolacrimal duct?

    1. Superior nasal meatus.

    2. *Inferior nasal meatus.

    3. Middle nasal meatus.

    4. Common nasal meatus.

    5. Sphenoethmoidal recess.

  8. A child, 6 years old, has suppurative inflammation of the middle ear complicated with suppurative inflammation of mastoid cells. Mastoidotomy is necessary. About what venous sinus must a surgeon remember to avoid its traumatizing?

    1. *Sigmoid.

    2. Superior sagittal.

    3. Inferior sagittal.

    4. Transverse.

    5. Cavernous.

  9. An 8-year-old boy with purulent otitis has the infecion spread from the tympanic cavity into the bulb of internal jugular vein. Such complication develops in case of one of the tympanic cavity walls thinning. What wall is it?

    1. Medial.

    2. Superior.

    3. *Inferior.

    4. Lateral.

    5. Anterior.

  10. A patient has a suppurative inflammation of the sphenoidal sinus. What part of the nasal cavity does the pus flow out into?

    1. *Meatus nasi superior.

    2. Meatus nasi communis.

    3. Meatus nasi medius.

    4. Meatus nasi inferior.

    5. Infundibulum.

  11. A casualty has a trauma of soft tissues and parietal bones in the place of synostosis accompanied by profuse bleeding. What vessel formation has been injured?

    1. *Sinus sagittalis superior.

    2. Sinus transversus.

    3. Sinus petrosus superior.

    4. Sinus rectus.

    5. Sinus sagittalis inferior.

  12. The roof of tympanic cavity was damaged by purulent otitis. To what cranial fossa can the pus get through the roof from the tympanic cavity?

    1. *Middle.

    2. Posterior.

    3. Anterior.

    4. Orbit.

    5. Pterygopalatine.

  13. A patient has an inflammation of sphenoid sinus. Where does the aper­ture of this sinus open?

    1. Infundibulum.

    2. *Sphenoethmoidal recess.

    3. Middle nasal meatus.

    4. Inferior nasal meatus.

    5. Common nasal meatus.

  14. A 30-year-old patient with a second upper molar pulp inflammation appealed to a doctor with complaints of headache and nose rheum. After examination pulpitis complicated with sinusitis was diagnosed. Which sinus did the infection enter from this tooth root canal?

    1. *Maxillary sinus.

    2. Frontal sinus.

    3. Sphenoidal sinus.

    4. Ethmoid cells.

    5. Mastoid cells.

  15. Chronic rhinitis is complicated with the signs of maxillary sinus mucous tunic affection (maxillary sinusitis). Through what nasal cavity forma­tion has the infection spread?

    1. Ethmoid cells.

    2. Ethmoidal infundibulum.

    3. Sphenopalatine foramen.

    4. Sphenoethmoidal recess.

    5. *Maxillary hiatus.

  16. A patient complains of headache and heavy breathing. X-ray examination confirmed the diagnosis - frontitis (inflammation of the frontal sinus). In what nasal meatus may purulent discharge be observed during the examination of the nasal cavity?

    1. Common.

    2. Superior.

    3. Inferior.

    4. *Middle.

    5. Above the superior nasal concha.

  17. During examination an otolaryngologist diagnosed the inflammation of the maxillary sinus. In what nasal meatus did the rhinoscopy show pus?

    1. *Middle.

    2. Superior.

    3. Inferior.

    4. Common.

    5. Supreme.

  18. Acute inflammatory process of the nasolacrimal duct mucosa of a 28-year-old patient has been diagnosed. Influenza was followed by 10-days' discharge from the nose. From what part of the nasal cavity could the infection get into the nasolacrimal duct?

    1. Vestibule of nose.

    2. Middle nasal meatus.

    3. Superior nasal meatus.

    4. *Inferior nasal meatus.

    5. Frontal sinus.

  19. A patient has got a complication after rhinitis. X-ray examination showed pus accumulation in the maxillary sinus on the left. To what nasal meatus does the pus release?

    1. Right nasopharyngeal.

    2. Right inferior nasal.

    3. Right superior nasal.

    4. Right common nasal.

    5. *Left middle nasal.

  20. A 25-year-old patient appealed to a doctor with complains of coryza and headache lasting for 4 days. Examination diagnosed frontitis. Through which nasal meatus did the infection get into the frontal sinus?

    1. Common.

    2. Superior.

    3. Inferior.

    4. *Middle.

    5. Nasopharyngeal.


UNIT 3. ARTHROLOGY

Practice class 13. Written tests and examination of practice skills of skull. Examination of self-taught tasks. Review of joints. The joints of the bones of skull. The temporo-mandibular joint.
The aim: to learn topography and structure of temporo-mandibular joint, the joints of the bones of skull; to name and show on the samples these joints and give their full classification characteristics.

Professional orientation: knowledge of this topic is necessary for doctors of all the specialities, especially for neuropathologists, neurosurgeons, traumatologists, pediatricians and others.

The plan of the practice class:

  1. Checking of home assignment: oral quiz or written test control – 40 minutes.

  2. Summary lecture on the topic by teacher – 20 minutes.

    1. The joints of the bones of the skull – cranial sutures, fontanels, dental impactions, synchondroses.

    2. The characteristic of temporo-mandibular joint.

    3. Movements in the temporo-mandibular joint.

  3. Students’ self-taught time – 15 minutes

  4. Home-task – 5 minutes

SUTURA is that form of articulation where the contiguous margins of the bones are united by a thin layer of fibrous tissue; it is met with only in the skull. When the margins of the bones are connected by a series of processes, and indentations interlocked together, the articulation is termed a true suture (sutura vera); and of this there are three varieties: sutura dentata, serrata, and limbosa. The margins of the bones are not in direct contact, being separated by a thin layer of fibrous tissue, continuous externally with the pericranium, internally with the dura mater. The sutura dentata is so called from the tooth-like form of the projecting processes, as in the suture between the parietal bones. In the sutura serrata the edges of the bones are serrated like the teeth of a fine saw, as between the two portions of the frontal bone. In the sutura limbosa, there is besides the interlocking, a certain degree of bevelling of the articular surfaces, so that the bones overlap one another, as in the suture between the parietal and frontal bones. When the articulation is formed by roughened surfaces placed in apposition with one another, it is termed a false suture (sutura notha), of which there are two kinds: the sutura squamosa, formed by the overlapping of contiguous bones by broad bevelled margins, as in the squamosal suture between the temporal and parietal, and the sutura harmonia, where there is simple apposition of contiguous rough surfaces, as in the articulation between the maxillae, or between the horizontal parts of the palatine bones.

GOMPHOSIS (DENTAL IMPACTION) is articulation by the insertion of a conical process into a socket; this is not illustrated by any articulation between bones, properly so called, but is seen in the articulations of the roots of the teeth with the alveoli of the mandible and maxillae.

SYNCHONDROSIS.—Where the connecting medium is cartilage the joint is termed a synchondrosis. This is a temporary form of joint, for the cartilage is converted into bone before adult life. Such joints are found between the occipital and the sphenoid at, and for some years after, birth, and between the petrous portion of the temporal and the jugular process of the occipital.


TEMPORO-MANDIBULAR JOINT (ARTICULATIO TEMPORO-MANDIBULARIS) is a ginglymo-arthrodial joint; the parts entering into its formation on either side are: the anterior part of the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone and the articular tubercle above; and the condyle of the mandible below. The ligaments of the joint are the following:

The Articular Capsule.

The Sphenomandibular.

The Temporomandibular.

The Articular Disk.

The Stylomandibular.



The Articular Capsule (capsula articularis; capsular ligament).—The articular capsule is a thin, loose envelope, attached above to the circumference of the mandibular fossa and the articular tubercle immediately in front; below, to the neck of the condyle of the mandible.

The Temporomandibular Ligament (ligamentum temporomandibulare; external lateral ligament).—The temporomandibular ligament consists of two short, narrow fasciculi, one in front of the other, attached, above, to the lateral surface of the zygomatic arch and to the tubercle on its lower border; below, to the lateral surface and posterior border of the neck of the mandible. It is broader above than below, and its fibers are directed obliquely downward and backward. It is covered by the parotid gland, and by the integument.

The Sphenomandibular Ligament (ligamentum sphenomandibulare; internal lateral ligament).—The sphenomandibular ligament is a flat, thin band which is attached above to the spina angularis of the sphenoid bone, and, becoming broader as it descends, is fixed to the lingula of the mandibular foramen. Its lateral surface is in relation, above, with the Pterygoideus externus; lower down, it is separated from the neck of the condyle by the internal maxillary vessels; still lower, the inferior alveolar vessels and nerve and a lobule of the parotid gland lie between it and the ramus of the mandible. Its medial surface is in relation with the Pterygoideus internus.

The Articular Disk (discus articularis; interarticular fibrocartilage; articular meniscus).—The articular disk is a thin, oval plate, placed between the condyle of the mandible and the mandibular fossa. Its upper surface is concavo-convex from before backward, to accommodate itself to the form of the mandibular fossa and the articular tubercle. Its under surface, in contact with the condyle, is concave. Its circumference is connected to the articular capsule; and in front to the tendon of the Pterygoideus externus. It is thicker at its periphery, especially behind, than at its center. The fibers of which it is composed have a concentric arrangement, more apparent at the circumference than at the center. It divides the joint into two cavities, each of which is furnished with a synovial membrane.

The Synovial Membranes.—The synovial membranes, two in number, are placed one above, and the other below, the articular disk. The upper one, the larger and looser of the two, is continued from the margin of the cartilage covering the mandibular fossa and articular tubercle on to the upper surface of the disk. The lower one passes from the under surface of the disk to the neck of the condyle, being prolonged a little farther downward behind than in front. The articular disk is sometimes perforated in its center, and the two cavities then communicate with each other.

The Stylomandibular Ligament (ligamentum stylomandibulare); stylomaxillary ligament.—The stylomandibular ligament is a specialized band of the cervical fascia, which extends from near the apex of the styloid process of the temporal bone to the angle and posterior border of the ramus of the mandible, between the Masseter and Pterygoideus internus. This ligament separates the parotid from the submaxillary gland, and from its deep surface some fibers of the Styloglossus take origin. Although classed among the ligaments of the temporomandibular joint, it can only be considered as accessory to it.

The nerves of the temporomandibular joint are derived from the auriculotemporal and masseteric branches of the mandibular nerve, the arteries from the superficial temporal branch of the external carotid.



Movements.—The movements permitted in this articulation are extensive. Thus, the mandible may be depressed or elevated, or carried forward or backward; a slight amount of side-to-side movement is also permitted. It must be borne in mind that there are two distinct joints in this articulation—one between the condyle and the articular disk, and another between the disk and the mandibular fossa. When the mouth is but slightly opened, as during ordinary conversation, the movement is confined to the lower of the two joints. On the other hand, when the mouth is opened more widely, both joints are concerned in the movement; in the lower joint the movement is of a hinge-like character, the condyle moving around a transverse axis on the disk, while in the upper joint the movement is of a gliding character, the disk, together with the condyle, gliding forward on to the articular tubercle, around an axis which passes through the mandibular foramina. These two movements take place simultaneously, the condyle and disk move forward on the eminence, and at the same time the condyle revolves on the disk. In shutting the mouth the reverse action takes place; the disk glides back, carrying the condyle with it, and this at the same time moves back to its former position. When the mandible is carried horizontally forward, as in protruding the lower incisor teeth in front of the upper, the movement takes place principally in the upper joint, the disk and the condyle gliding forward on the mandibular fossa and articular tubercle. The grinding or chewing movement is produced by one condyle, with its disk, gliding alternately forward and backward, while the other condyle moves simultaneously in the opposite direction; at the same time the condyle undergoes a vertical rotation on the disk. One condyle advances and rotates, the other condyle recedes and rotates, in alternate succession.

The mandible is depressed by its own weight, assisted by the Platysma, the Digastricus, the Mylohyoideus, and the Geniohyoideus. It is elevated by the Masseter, Pterygoideus internus, and the anterior part of the Temporalis. It is drawn forward by the simultaneous action of the Pterygoidei internus and externus, the superficial fibers of the Masseter and the anterior fibers of the Temporalis; and backward by the deep fibers of the Masseter and the posterior fibers of the Temporalis. The grinding movement is caused by the alternate action of the Pterygoidei of either side.


Practice skills

Students are supposed to name the joints of the bones of skull, give their full characteristic and identify the anatomical structures on the samples.



  • coronal suture

  • sagittal suture

  • lambdoid suture

  • fontanelles: occipital, frontal, sphenoidal, mastoid

  • dental impaction

  • temporomandibular joint




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