Sustainable fisheries

1. 
   Gain access or free movement to the sea space.
   
2. 
   Incorporate regional and international cooperation.
   
3. 
   Increase industrial and employment opportunities/scopes.
   
4. 
   Transfer of technology research projects from laboratory into practice.
   

1. 
   Disturbance of the seabed: During the foundation installation, the natural habitat is replaced with a rigid substrate containing gravels and boulders. According to Hammar, 2016, the construction disturbed the habitats and benthos. For example, noting the changes in seabed coverage before and after installation, Middelgrunden in demark. Before installation, the seagrass meadow completely covered the coarse sediment seabed with a great abundance of blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) observed in unvegetated areas. After three years, the seagrass increased while the abundance of blue mussels on the seafloor decreased slightly.
   
2. 
   Wind movement strength: it is seen that after the installation of the turbines, there is an interruption of water movements such as wave motions and currents.
   

3. 
   Threat to fishing trawling: Due to wind blades and foundations, fishing is often difficult or impossible in such areas. “Trawling is not permitted in wind farms. This is because of navigational safety requirements and risk of damage to cable and infrastructure.” (Hammar et al., 2016)
   
4. 
   Noise pollution/frequency noise: Within the foundations of the wind turbines, there is always noise around the axis, negatively impacting marine habitats like mammals (Seals)
   
5. 
   Loss of seabirds and bats: Turbines' most common notable impact is on seabirds (Albatrosses/fulmars) and bats. “A recent study from the National Wind Coordinating Committee (NWCC) review of peer-reviewed research found that bird and bat deaths from a collision with turbine rotor blades and due to change in air pressure caused by spinning of turbines, as well as habitat disruption,” (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2013). Furthermore, “avoidance of the blades and habitat loss have been observed in the German North Sea wind farm ‘Alpa Ventus’ although it is sad that no severe impact of the reduction of these birds have been seen or established. This can cause the migration of some species of birds to Utgrunden wind farm and Danish wind farms.” (Hammar et al., 2016).
   
6. 
   Vast space consumption: Offshore wind turbines consume or take more space than land wind turbines, whose blades are smaller than offshore blades. This tends to compete more with other sea activities like fishing, gavel and sand extraction, oil and gas extraction, navigation, and recreational activities. Even though the marine environment is vast, maritime activities are also prevalent in these areas, so there is a distortion in the installation.
   
7. 
   Warming emission: According to the Union of Concerned Scientists (2013), although wind turbines emit no environmental emissions, the other components used for their installation or production threaten the environment during production. “Most estimated wind turbine life-cycle global warming emissions are between 0.002 and 0.04 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour” (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2013).
   
8. 
   Electromagnetic Field effect: The turbines' buried cables tend to affect marine life like sharks, rays, and skates, which have distinctive electroreceptive organs that help them navigate. Other seas live like turtles that use magnet fields for navigation, but due to these turbines' installation cables, they interfere with their voyage or migration movement.
   

1. 
   The wind farm turbine foundations serve as reefs for some organisms.
   
2. 
   Due to the abundance of the organisms like fish, there is availability of food for other predators. (seals and seabirds)
   
3. 
   Increase in abundance of different species of organisms (Biodiversity increase).
   
4. 
   The wind farms serve as refuge areas for bio life.
   

Mitigation strategies (Maxwell et al., 2022)

1. 
   Devices, such as thermal imagery, should be used to monitor the impact of the collision, and a wind farm should be placed where there are no essential birds around the habitat.
   
2. 
   Ships or vessels navigating around those areas should be reduced or monitored to reduce accidents or collisions with the turbines.
   
3. 
   c. The cables should be appropriately handled and buried so that fishing activities can continue in those areas and avoid entanglement.
   
4. 
   Every wear and tear of cables should be replaced or repaired to avoid habitat disturbance or interference.