The Emerging Electrical Markets for Copper
Other Renewables-Based and Distributed Electricity Generation
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Other Renewables-Based and Distributed Electricity GenerationSector BackgroundThe main focus of interest in renewable-based and distributed generation is in wind power and solar PV, but other markets within this sector merit some attention. Already, small hydro and biomass are significant markets. Their growth rate is expected to be lower than that in either wind or solar PV, and their copper content per MW relatively. Still, there is potential for copper in both. Forecasts for biomass and small hydro are presented in this Section and in Section 3.6. There are two other markets that, although quite small, have major potential. We include concentrating solar power (CSP) and marine power in this category, and cover them separately below. Concentrating Solar PowerSector Background As an alternative to solar PV, the sun’s energy can be actively utilised using concentrating solar power (CSP). Here, the sun’s energy is used to boil water, which is then used to provide power in the form of electricity or heat. As well as its significant potential in its own right, the technology has been used alongside a modern, large, reverse osmosis desalination plant in Abu Dhabi. The combination may have great potential elsewhere. Some of the CSP systems in place are combined cycle, combining CSP technology with fossil fuel based steam turbine generation. Today, there is a growing interest in pure CSP technology. Alternative Technical and Market Solutions Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems produce heat or electricity using numerous mirrors to concentrate the sun’s rays to a temperature typically between 400 and 1000°C. The collecting units heat oil, or in some cases salt. The hot medium is used when required to create steam, which is then used to drive a traditional steam turbine / transformer set up. Unlike most distributed electricity, CSP has the capacity to store energy (in the form of heat). The number of CSP plants in existence is quite small, but most of those that are in place are large. Individual CSP plants are now typically between 50 and 280 MW in size, but could be larger still. The range of CSP is limited to parts of the world where there is sufficient irradiated heat from the sun. This really means Spain and Portugal in Europe, with some potential in Italy and Greece. Unlike solar PV, CSP is not able to capture diffuse sun energy. Still, this leaves large areas of the world where there is CSP potential, including North Africa, the Middle East, parts of India, China, southern United States and Australia. A CSP system consists of the following four elements: Concentrator or collector: Mirrors capturing the solar radiation and delivers it to the receiver. Receiver: Absorbs the concentrated sunlight, transferring heat energy to a working fluid via a transfer system (usually a mineral oil, or more rarely, molten salts or metals, steam or air). Transport and Storage System: Passes the fluid from the receiver to the power conversion system. Power conversion: Usually a steam turbine generating electricity on demand. Differences in CSP technology are centred on the collection and receiver elements of the system. Concentrating mirrors may be arranged either in line or point focussing. Line systems concentrate radiation about 100 times, and achieve working temperatures of up to 550°C. Point systems can concentrate far more than 1,000 times and achieve working temperatures of more than 1,000°C. Figure 68: Alternative CSP Technologies 
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