The Global 200 : a representation Approach to Conserving the Earth’s Distinctive Ecoregions

Tropical Coral

The greatest known species diversity of any marine ecosystem is found in coral reefs. Tropical Coral reefs are fragile and diverse habitats that exist in sunlit waters along continental and island margins. Healthy reefs are typically found in clear waters that are nutrient poor. Temperature restrictions also limit the location and survival of reefs; an increase of one or two degrees above the usual maximum temperatures can result in bleaching. Coral reefs are characterized by structural complexity, low levels of environmental fluctuations, clear water, and advanced age—modern reefs represent approximately 6,000 years of growth. An estimated 600,000 square kilometers of coral reefs are scattered over an area of about 150 million square kilometers of tropical oceans.

The vertical growth and complexity of reef structures provide numerous niches for different species to fill. In addition to the calcium carbonate structure that the diverse corals species provide, numerous species of attached sponges and algae help to give the reefs their form. Fishes, invertebrates, and cryptofauna—organisms that bore into, attach to, or hide within the heterogeneous structure of the reef—exploit the varied reef habitats. Open water also provides habitat for a number of species, including barracuda (Sphyraena spp.), sharks, whales and other Cetaeceans. Along with the warm waters and low nutrient levels, the diversity of reef species is thought to be associated intermittent levels of natural disturbance, such as storms. Tropical corals likely have the highest beta-diversity among marine ecoregions.

Central Indo-Pacific

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ansei Shoto [217] – Japan

Geographic Location: Pacific Ocean off eastern Asia

Biodiversity Features: Nansei Shoto Islands, a chain of islands off southwestern Japan, contain diverse coral reefs that support many endemic fish species as well as populations of marine birds and mammals. subtropical ecosystems of the western pacific ocean with unusual endemism for the habitat type

Selected Species: Loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta), dugong (Dugong dugon), anemone fish (Amphiprion clarkii), Japanese parrotfish (Calotamus japonicus), and numerous other fish species as well as non-coral invertebrates and tropical marine algae are found in this ecoregion. This region provides breeding habitat for the endangered northern right whale (Eubalaena australis), other marine mammals include finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides).

General Threats: Important threats to the biodiversity in this region come from soil runoff—a phenomenon related to construction and agricultural practices—that leads to increasing sedimentation. The outbreak of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci), a predator of corals, poses a serious threat to these reefs. Coral bleaching has been reported in the coastal waters around different islands. Pollution has severely affected some areas, especially, closed bays. Illegal collecting and exploitation of reef resources are further causes for concern.

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ulu-Sulawesi Seas [218] – Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines

Geographic Location: Southeast Asia

Biodiversity Features: Abundant coral reefs, mangroves, and seagrass beds of the Lesser Sundas support one of the richest array of coral reef animals and plants in the world. These coral ecosystems are some of the most diverse on Earth, with over 450 species of scleractinian corals compared to 50 in the Caribbean and around 200 in the western Indian Ocean. Fish diversity reaches its highest level worldwide in this region. one of the most diverse marine communities on earth with globally high fish and coral diversity

Selected Species: Among the fishes that characterize this ecoregion are giant bumphead parrot-fish (Bolbometapon muricatus), Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus), jacks (Carangidae spp.), needlefishes (Belonidae spp.), barracudas (Sphyraena spp.), and various species of sharks (Selachimorpha spp.). The area supports exensive turtle populations; green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Erethmochelys imbricata), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) are found. Two other aquatic reptiles include the water monitor (Varanus salvator), and saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). The manta ray (Manta birostris) also roams these seas. Based on recent research efforts, eight cetaceans are known from these two seas: the spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris), spotted dolphin (Stenella atterruata), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), Risso’s dolphin (Grampus griscus), Fraser’s dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei), short-finned pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus), dwarf sperm whale (Kogia simus), and Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris). The endangered dugong (Dugong dugon) is known to feed in the area. Birds include the critically endangered Chinese crested tern (Thalasseus bernsteini).

General Threats: Coastal erosion, sedimentation, and nutrient runoff from the land, coral mining and collection, overexploitation of sea turtles, rock mining and collection of fishes for the aquarium trade comprise the primary threats to marine environments throughout this ecoregion. Destructive fishing practices, such as dynamite fishing and cyanide fishing, are also of concern.

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ismarck-Solomon Seas [219] – Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands

Geographic Location: Southeast Asia, Torres Strait, and Northern Great Barrier Reef

Biodiversity Features: These waters are home to globally outstanding coral reef assemblages that are among the most diverse in the world. Bound to the north and south by deep ocean trenches, these seas contain numerous small islands. In close proximity to both the Great Barrier Reef and the highly diverse East Indian region, these waters potentially contain unique and complex species assemblages, including a number of endemic species. some of the worlds most diverse marine ecosystems with some endemism, including some of the most intact coral communities in the southwestern pacific

Selected Species: Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) rookeries exist here. Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), green (Chelonia mydas), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) sea turtles swim in these waters, as do Blainville’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris), dugong (Dugong dugon), and finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides). Fish families include butterfly fishes (Chaetodontidae), seabasses (Serranidae), pipefish (Sygnatidae) and sea horses (Hippocampus spp). Giant clam (Tridacnidae sp.), giant triton (Charonia tritonis), wedge-tailed shearwater (Puffinus pacificus), black-naped tern (Sterna sumatrana), and lesser frigatebird (Fregata ariel) are present in the area.

General Threats: Widespread logging activities have resulted in erosion of land surfaces and are leading to damaging sedimentation. Unregulated, localized cutting of mangroves is underway, including systematic clearing for coconut plantations. Light industry residues as well as sewage discharge result in degraded water quality. Illegal dynamite fishing and hunting of crocodiles and turtles poses a serious threat to local fauna. The increase of tourism and its associated impacts represents another cause for concern.

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anda-Flores Sea [220] -Indonesia

Geographic Location: Southeast Asia

Biodiversity Features: The diverse and complex coral reefs and marine ecosystems of Papua New Guinea and the Moluccas support numerous endemic species of coral, fish and invertebrates, as well as populations of marine turtles, dugongs, and giant clams. The reefs and lagoon complexes also contain seabird rookery islands. one of the most diverse marine communities on earth with globally high fish and coral diversity

Selected Species: Carpet shark (Eucrossorhinus dasypogon), catshark (Hemiscyllium ocellatum), big grouper (Epinephelus sp.) and moray eel (Gymnothorax flavomarginatus) are but just a few of the numerous fishes present here. These habitats also support Dugong (Dugong dugon), Blainville’s beaked whale (Mesaplodon densirostris), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), green turtle (Chelonias mydas), and leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea).

General Threats: Dynamite fishing, shark fin fisheries, deforestation, uncontrolled tourism, and toxins and erosion from logging and mining pose threats to the region. Localized oil spills have been reported. Sewage pollution in some populated areas is also affecting water quality.

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ew Caledonia Barrier Reef [221] – New Caledonia (France)

Geographic Location: South Pacific

Biodiversity Features: New Caledonia’s marine waters harbor the second longest double barrier reef in the world, which reaches a length of 1,500 km. Reef formations have high geomorphologic and species diversity and are of outstanding biogeographical interest. Much of the enormous species diversity in New Caledonia is yet unclassified and new species of fish and invertebrates are being discovered. The reefs provide one of the main nesting sites for the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and dugongs (Dugong dugon) are found in these waters. Several endemic mollusks are present, as are several rare crab species. THIS BARRIER REEF IS A regional center of endemism in the south pacific. Second largest barrier reef in the world

Selected Species: Fish diversity is high; at least 1,000 species have been documented. These fish include the endemic sea bass (Luzonichthys williamsi), and numerous species within the families Labridae, Pomacentridae, Gobidae, Serrandiae, Chaetodontidae, and Apogonidae. Major commercial fish include representatives from the following families: Serranidae, Lutjanidae, Lethrinidae, Mullidae, Labridae. New species of fish and invertebrates are being documented, including a new species of extremely rare amphipod (Didymochelia ledoyerisp), and a new species of palaemonine shrimp (Brachycarpus crosnieri). A diverse population of water striders (Xenobates spp. and Halovelia spp.) exists here. Other invertebrates of interest include two species of giant clams (Tridacna gigas and Hippopus hippopus). Over 600 species of sponges find habitat in these waters, as well as 5,500 species of mollusks, 5,000 species of crustaceans, and over 350 species of algae. The dugong (Dugong dugon) and other marine mammals exist here. Numerous waterbird species utilize these waters; twenty-three known species of marine birds breed here, including the red-footed booby (Sula sula), sooty tern (Sterna fuscata), lesser noddy (Anous tenuirostris), and brown noddy (A. stolidus). Marine turtles include green (Chelonic mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), loggerhead (Carettta caretta) and leatherback (Dermochelys coricea).

General Threats: The great majority of coral reefs are reported to be in good health, with the exception of the eastern reefs that receive mining effluent. Nickel mining and bush fires greatly intensify erosion and natural sedimentation processes, particularly when coupled with cyclone flood surges. Coral reef morphology has been affected by heavy sedimentation in lagoon areas near river mouths, a problem exacerbated by the destruction of sediment-retaining mangroves; some reefs have been buried under more than 8 m of silt. The loss of mangrove swamps is of major concern, as is the loss of other coastal habitats and spawning areas (e.g., seagrass beds and fringing reefs) for marine fish and invertebrates. Coastal development (e.g., infilling and construction work on reef flats and mangroves) poses a threat, as impact studies are uncommon. Marine pollution by metals and hazards related to shipping are of further concern. A rapid increase in the number of sailing vessels has increased anchor damage on reefs and pollution from direct discharge of sewage. The use of TBT (tributyl-tin) anti-fouling paints (banned in Europe) adds to pollution levels. Industrial and domestic pollution is often severe around large towns, due to insufficient sanitation networks. Aquaculture effluent contributes to raised nutrient levels, causing hyper sedimentation and some eutrophication. Overfishing for the aquarium trade, and for commercial, recreational, and subsistence purposes poses a large threat. Small-scale infestations of the coral-feeding crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) have damaged reefs. Collection of marine organisms on the reef flats is of increasing concern. Some rare species sought by collectors may be in danger of extinction, especially endemic species such as Cymbiolacca thatcheri and Lyria grangei. Overexploitation of sea cucumbers and trochus shells (collected for export) threatens stocks, as does recreational and speargun fishing.

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reat Barrier Reef [222] – Australia

Geographic Location: Northeast coast of Australia

Biodiversity Features: The Great Barrier Reef is the largest barrier reef system in the world, extending 2,000 km from the low-latitude tropics to temperate zones. Comprised of the most diverse reef types, habitats, and environmental regimes, this is an area of enormous scientific importance. Northern tropical waters are highly diverse, though there are relatively few endemic species. In contrast, the temperate portions of the reef have low overall species diversity but a higher proportion of endemic species. This enormous system and its diversity of habitats support many forms of marine life. There are an estimated 1,900 species of fish, approximately 350 species of hard-reef-building corals, more than 4,000 mollusk species, and over 400 species of sponge have been collected. In addition, these reefs harbor important nesting sites for numerous seabird species. the largest barrier reef in the world with some endemism in fish and invertebrates

Selected Species: Unique habitats and breeding sites for the largest populations of dugong (Dugong dugon), and for saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) are found within this ecosystem. Additionally, the region contains nesting grounds of global significance for the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), as well as for the flatback turtle (Natator depressa). Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) turtles also use habitats in this area. Other species of interest include greater crested tern (Thalasseus bergii), black cod (Epinephelus daemelii), humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), killer whale (Orcinus orca), bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus), Irrawaddy river dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis), and spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris).

General Threats: Eutrophication, especially related to runoff from agricultural development (e.g., sugar cane), has reduced coral reef diversity and spatial cover. Dumping of dredge spoil in the sea adversely affects reefs by increasing turbidity and sedimentation. Oil exploration and production and their related dangers (e.g., accidental oil spills from islands and especially from passing ships) represent a threat. Overfishing, especially trawl and line fisheries, has a strong impact on the local marine fauna. Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) have occurred, destroying a high proportion of hard coral cover.

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ord Howe-Norfolk Islands Marine [223] – Australia

Geographic Location: South Pacific off eastern Australia

Biodiversity Features: This area has a rich diversity of fish and invertebrates, particularly echinoderms. unusual levels of endemism in fish and invertebrates around these ancient and long-isolated islands

Selected Species: The islands support significant populations of seabirds, including flesh-footed shearwater (Puffinus carneipes), wedge-tailed shearwater (P. pacificus), black-winged petrel (Pterodroma nigripennis), white-bellied storm petrel (Fregatta grallaria), masked booby (Sula dactylatra), grey noddy (Procelsterna albivittata) and white tern (Gygis alba). Southern right whales (Eubalaena australis) breed here, and five species of beaked whales (Family, Ziphiidae), and dusky dolphins (Lagenorynchus obscurus) inhabit these waters. Marine turtles include green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and loggerhad (Caretta caretta).

General Threats: There is some pollution from sewage effluent. Coral die-offs as a result of polluted groundwater have been reported. Sub-Antarctic currents periodically denude the coral reef, but tropical currents support the recolonizing process.

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alau Marine [224] – Palau

Geographic Location: Pacific Ocean off Southeast Asia

Biodiversity Features: Palau is considered to have some of the richest and most diverse coral reefs in the Pacific, with 300 species of coral. Micronesia's reefs also support diverse communities of coral, fish, and marine mammals. some of the most intact examples of open pacific coraline atoll ecosystems

Selected Species: Finless porpoise (Neophocoena phoaenoides), Blainsville beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris), and ginko-toothed beaked whale (M. ginkodens) inhabit these waters. Invertebrate species include all seven known species of giant clam (Tridacnidae spp.), Marine turtles inlcude hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), and green (Chelonia mydas) leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), and loggerhead (Caretta caretta).

General Threats: Overfishing and destructive fishing practices such as the use of cyanide and dynamite threaten the reefs. Pelagic fishing for sharks is a major problem. Outbreaks of Acanthaster planci (crown-of-thorns starfish) have occurred in many areas. Sewage dumping from urban settlements represents an important problem in the area. In some areas the development of roads, runoff, coastal dredging and the use of reef material for construction are of major concern. Oil spills and insecticides have a localized impact. Native fauna (e.g., turtles) is coming under increasing hunting pressure.

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ndaman Sea [225] – Andaman and Nicobar Islands (India), Indonesia, Malasia, Myanmar, Thailand

Geographic Location: Bay of Bengal, off southern coast of Asia

Biodiversity Features: Unlike the Lakshadweep-Chagos chain, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are high volcanic islands, arising from a submerged mountain chain that follows the southward extension of the continental shelf. Much of the wildlife on these islands is endemic, including 112 species of endemic birds. Extensive fringing reefs exist, as well as a 320 km-long barrier reef on the west coast. While poorly known scientifically, these reefs may prove to be the most diverse and best preserved in the Indian Ocean. extensive coral ecosystems and one of the largest barrier reefs in the indian ocean, some endemism

Selected Species: The endemic bird species include Nicobar megapode (Megapodius nicobariensis), Nicobar green imperial pigeon (Ducula aenea nicobarica), and Nicobar emerald dove (Chancophaps indica augusta) Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) turtles nest in the region, as does the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porusus). Marine mammals include dugong (Dugong dugon), finless porpoise (Neophocaena hocaenoides), and Blainville’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris). Rich fish and invertebrate faunas exist on the reefs; fish families include Labridae, Pomacentridae, Scaridae, and Blenniidae; nine species of seagrass are present.

General Threats: An influx of people from the mainland as well as refugees from Bangladesh and Sri Lanka exert stress on the natural resources of these islands. Exploitation of mangroves for firewood, charcoal, and housing material are jeopardizing the survival of mangrove ecosystems. Increasing human settlement and development of aquaculture and agriculture in mangrove areas results in the complete loss of certain mangrove species. Moreover, development of tourism and recreational activities pose increasing threats to this ecoregion.
Eastern Indo-Pacific

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ahitian Marine [226] - Cook Islands (New Zealand), French Polynesia (France)

Geographic Location: Pacific Ocean

Biodiversity Features: These isolated oceanic islands are located at a greater distance from a continent than any other islands in the world. The Marquesas, along with Hawai'i and Easter Island, have the highest percentages of marine endemism of any island or island group in the Pacific. highly isolated marine ecosystem with unusual endemism in invertebrates and fish

Selected Species: Several species of marine turtles, including green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), as well as humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), several species of giant clams (Tridacna gigas, T, squamosa, T. maxima, Hippopus hippopus), Phoenix petrel (Pterodroma alba), Christmas shearwater (Puffinus nativitatis), coconut crab (Birgus latro), and the spiny lobster (Panulirus sp.), are among the numerous species found in this region.

General Threats: On the major islands, land runoff and sedimentation have limited reef development in many areas. Urbanization and associated anthropogenic pollutants from sewer outfalls, agricultural practices, sugar mill discharges, power plant effluents, dredging activities and non-point source runoff have serious impacts on the water quality. With the increase in fishing technology and demand, overfishing is a persistent problem on the high islands. Outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) have been reported in several areas.

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awaiian Marine [227] – Hawaii (United States)

Geographic Location: North Pacific

Biodiversity Features: The Hawaiian Archipelago is situated in relative isolation in the subtropical fringe of the North Pacific. Hawaiian reefs provide an excellent example of reef evolution, as the fringing and barrier reefs are geologically young and continue to form as the volcanic islands mature. Endemism in shore fishes reaches its highest level globally in the Hawaiian Islands (23% of 566 species) because of their geographic and hydrographic isolation. In general, the marine fauna here is genetically differentiated from its Indo-West Pacific roots, although not well diversified. Hawaiian waters provide wintering ground for marine mammals; more than half of the 2000 remaining North Pacific humpback whales (Megaptera novaenglie) winter in Hawaii. THESE HABITATS SUPPORT THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF ENDEMISM FOR MARINE FISHES IN THE WORLD

Selected Species: Many species of coral exist in Hawaiian reefs, including several species of endemic cauliflower coral (Pocillopora spp). Endemic fishes include fantail filefish (Pervagor spilosoma), several species of angelfishes ( Genicanthus personatus, Centropyge spp), Hawaiian anthias (Pseudanthias thompsoni, ), yellow margin basslet (Liopropoma aurora), Hawaiian grouper (Epinephelus quernus), and five species of butterflyfishes (Chaetodon spp). Other endemic species include the Hawaiian spiny lobster (Panulirus marginatus) and the regal slipper lobster (Arctides regalis). Approximately 1000 species of mollusks occur in Hawaiian waters, 20 percent of which are endemic. Hawaiian waters host the green (Chelonia mydas), and leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea): loggerheads (Caretta caretta), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) and Kemp's ridley (L. kempii) turtles are infrequent visitors. Hawai’ian waters provide the only endangered humpback whale (Megaptera novaenglie) breeding ground in the United States, and Laysan (Diomedea immutabilis) and black-footed albatross (D. nigripes) have their main breeding grounds on the islands. The impressively large eagle rays (Aetobatus narinari), and the endemic Hawai’ian monk seal (Monachus schauinslandi) also inhabit this ecoregion.

General Threats: Overfishing, coastal development, pollution, and introduced species are all major threats.

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apa Nui [228] – Chile

Geographic Location: Southeastern Pacific

Biodiversity Features: Rapa Nui, or Easter Island, is the eastern node of Polynesia and all of Oceania. It sits in the middle of the southeastern Pacific Ocean, 3,760 km west of the Chilean mainland and 2,000 kilometers southeast of the closest other inhabited island. Submarine volcanoes and mineral deposit formations characterize the ocean floor in this region. The marine flora of Rapa Nui is among the least well known in the Pacific. Extreme geographic isolation allows for a high degree of endemism; these waters have the second highest rate of endemism of shore fishes in Oceania with 22% of the 126 species restricted to the ocean surrounding Rapa Nui. This region has its own unique molluscan assemblage and 166 taxa of marine algae are represented in these waters.

Selected Species: A wide variety of nesting sea birds exist on Rapa Nui and surrounding islands, including masked booby (Sula dactylatra) grey noddy (Procelstrena albivitta), great and lesser frigatebird (Fregata minor and F. ariel). The dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus) also exists here. Indo-Pacific species comprise 70% of the fish in these waters. The fish families with the highest diversity are Labridae, Muraenidae, Holocentridae, Balistidae, Serranidae, Carangidae, Scorpaenidae, Pomacentridae, and Kyphsidea. Several newly discovered species of fish include a scorpionfish, Rhinopias cea, and the scrawled filefish (Alutera scripta). Numerous mollusk species in the intertidal areas, including the newly discovered genus of pontocypridid (Peripontocypris), the recently discovered pendunculate barnacle, Neolepas rapanuii, and the first sessile barnacle from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent on a mid ocean ridge which is classified in the previously monotypic genus Eochionelasmus.

General Threats: Marine habitats have been impacted by upland activities such as unregulated grazing on limited pasture space and the clearing of once lush palm forests for agriculture. An effort by the Chilean government to accelerate island development has resulted in the construction of new housing projects and increases in paved areas, which divert rainfall. Tourism is the largest industry on the island, and the use of National Park land for the construction of hotels, as well as the construction of a major port threaten the quality of these marine habitats.


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iji Barrier Reef [229] –Fiji

Geographic Location: South Pacific

Biodiversity Features: The 320 islands in Fiji are surrounded by waters home to a diverse ocean environment that includes barrier and fringing coral reefs, mangroves, deep pelagic areas, and eelgrass beds. These habitats and others are considered internationally and regionally important sites for marine biodiversity and support hundreds of species of fish, marine turtles, and nesting seabirds. The coral reefs in this region have species assemblages that are among the most diverse in the world. regional center of endemism in the south pacific and Extensive coral reef formations.

Selected Species: Most abundant fishes include the delicate round herring (Spratelloides delicatulus), luminous cardinalfish (Rhabdamia gracilis), and spotted sardinella (Amblygaster sirm). Over 340 species of cryptic shelled mollusks are found in shallow subtidal and intertidal shelter habitats. Two species of giant clams (Tridacna gigas and Hippopus hippopus), green turtle (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), and dugong (Dugong dugon) are among the species found in this ecoregion.

General Threats: Some of the reef areas and mangroves of the more populated islands have been drastically altered. Run-off from pollution and sewage discharge from urban areas, and siltation due to dredging have lowered fish populations and injured natural habitats in and around the capital of Suva as well as Nadi and Lautoka areas of Viti Levu. Overfishing and introduced species pose further threats. Marine turtles are hunted for their shells and meat and small tropical fish are collected for the aquarium trade, fueling the destruction of reef areas.

Western Indo-Pacific

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aldives, Chagos, Lakshadweep Atolls [230] – Chagos Archipelago (United Kingdom), India, Maldives, Sri Lanka

Geographic Location: Indian Ocean off southern Asia

Biodiversity Features: The Maldives, the Chagos Archipelago, and Lakshadweep form the Laccadive-Chagos chain that extends southward from India to the Central Indian Ocean. These islands are composed entirely of atolls with extensive and largely intact reefs as well as sandy islands. The Maldives comprise perhaps one of the world's most complex reef systems. The Chagos Archipelago has the largest expanse of undisturbed reefs in the Indian Ocean, as well as some of the most diverse. In addition to five atolls, including Great Chagos Bank, the world's largest atoll in terms of area, there are two areas of raised reef and several large submerged reefs. The Chagos reefs are of particular interest for the presence of an endemic coral, Ctenella chagius. The Maldives and Chagos islands are important nesting sites for green turtles (Chelonia mydas) and many of the islands in the chain have seabird nesting colonies. These coral reef and atoll communities are the most extensive in the indian ocean. the largest atoll system in the world

Selected Species: Green turtle (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), white tern (Gygis alba), lesser frigatebird (Fregata ariel), common dolphin (Delphinus delphis), Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris), finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides), and Blainsville’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris) inhabit these waters.

General Threats: The greatest threat to these reefs comes from the relatively rapid establishment and growth of the tourist industry as well as from the introduction of mechanized fishing. Clearance of terrestrial vegetation for development leads to siltation. Coral mining has caused significant damage to the reefs. The construction of groynes, breakwaters and jetties has caused locally severe disturbance to some fringing reefs. Anchor damage and siltation caused by speedboats are increasingly problematic. Other threats include pollution from factories, increased shipping traffic with the associated risk of oil spills and dumping, inadequate waste disposal, and the overuse of water pumps and fertilizers for agriculture.

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ed Sea [231] – Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Yemen

Geographic Location: Northeast Africa and Middle East

Biodiversity Features: The Red Sea is the warmest and most saline of the world's seas. No permanent coastal rivers or streams flow into the Red Sea, and it is partially isolated from the open ocean. Together, these features contribute to a unique flora and fauna. The diverse and spectacular coral reefs for which the Red Sea is renowned are found only in the central and northern portions, where the reefs are well developed and drop steeply into deep water. distinctive coral ecosystems Comprising A REGIONAL CENTER OF ENDEMISM FOR FISH AND INVERTEBRATES

Selected Species: Marine turtles inlclude green (Chelonia mydas), loggerhead (Caretta caretta), leatherback (Eretmochelys imbricata), olive ridley (Lepidochelys oliacea), and hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata). Birds include Saunder’s tern (Sterna saundersi), white-cheeked tern (S. repressa), great black-headed gull (Larus icthyaetus), pink-backed pelican (Pelicanaus rufescens), the brown booby (Sula leucogaster), white-eyed gull (Larus leucophtalmus), and osprey (Pandion haliaetus). Other species include dugong (Dugong dugon), Blainsville’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon desirostris), white-tip reef shark (Triaenodon obesus), butterflyfishes (Chaetodon spp.), giant clams (Tridacna spp.), and several species of dolphins (Family, Delphinidae) Seventeen percent of fish are endemic; greater than 90% of dottybacks (Family, Pseudochromidae) and triplefins (Family, Tripterygiidae) are endemic.

General Threats: Overfishing, spearfishing, souvenir collecting, scuba diving, and the use of the coast for recreational activities represent major disturbances to these coral reefs. Oil exploration and transport have resulted in several oil spills. Sewage discharge, chemical pollution, and sedimentation from urban development pose further threats to the Red Sea's coral reefs. Industrial and urban development, as well as extensive coastal development, landfilling, and coastal engineering are dramatically altering certain coastal areas.

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rabian Sea [232] – Djibouti, Iran, Qatar, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen

Geographic Location: Waters off the Arabian Peninsula and north of the Indian Ocean

Biodiversity Features: The Arabian Sea has some of the most extreme climatic regimes due to seasonal fluctuations in air and water temperatures. Thus, it harbors excellent examples of ecosystem (e.g., coral reef) responses to natural environmental stresses. A diversity of marine habitats exists, including coral reefs with over 75% cover in selected areas and sea grass beds that provide important breeding and nursery habitats especially for mollusks. Mangrove areas exist with selected stands reaching 6m in height, as do subtidal sandy and mud ecosystems that support rich biological assemblages (>600 species). Seasonal brown, green, and red algal flora and seasonal kelp communities, including several endemic species, represent important components of this region’s biodiversity. Upwelling effects result in highly productive pelagic waters and high plankton productivity along the Oman Coast that support an enormous diversity of small herbivores. Marine fauna includes several species of sea snakes, dolphins, whales and sea turtles, including the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), a species that relies on the Arabian Sea’s Masirah Island for its largest breeding ground worldwide. HIGHLY PRODUCTIVE HABITATS THAT REFLECT EXTREME BIOPHYSICAL REGIMES. ENDEMISM AMONG ALGAL COMMUNITIES.

Selected Species: A wide variety of invertebrates and algae exist, including Sargassopsis zanardinii, a species that is endemic to the Arabian coastline. Fishes, such as barracudas (Sphyraena spp.), wrasses (Family, Labridae), and damselfish (Family, Pomacentridae), characterize these waters. Dugong (Dugong dugon), and several species of turtles, including the green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), and loggerhead (Caretta caretta), are found in the Arabian Sea. Of the baleen whales, Bryde’s (Balaenoptera edeni), minke (B. acutoristrata), fin (B. physalus), blue (B. musculus) and humpback (Megaptera novaengliae) whales have been recorded. The toothed whales include sperm (Physeter macrocephalus), orca (Orcinus orca), and false killer (Pseudorca crassidens). At least a dozen species of dolphins (Family, Delphinidae) as well as the finless porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides) exist in the Arabian Sea.

General Threats: Some of the world’s busiest oil tanker routes traverse The Arabian Sea. As a result, many areas suffer high inputs of oil to the water, both from spills and the discharge of dirty ballast water. Anchor damage, sedimentation, and other pollution effects are also associated with shipping and transport. Mining operations contribute to contamination, resulting in effluents with elevated temperatures that contain heavy metal contaminants. Fishing pressures from traditional fisheries as well as destructive fish collecting practices (e.g., dynamiting) have resulted in fish population declines and habitat degradation. In response, species composition for fishes, shrimp, and other biota has been altered in many areas. Residential and commercial development has resulted in eutrophication associated with sewage, fertilizer and other effluents. Recreation and tourism also contribute to eutrophication and reef degradation. War-related activities provide another source of environmental damage, including marine pollution and habitat degradation from oil.

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ast African Marine [233] – Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Somalia,

Geographic Location: Western Indian Ocean on the eastern coast of Africa

Biodiversity Features: Comprised of approximately 3,200 hectares of mangrove, the Rufiji Delta is one of the most important coastal wetlands in East Africa. Elsewhere along the coastline of Tanzania and Kenya, coral reefs form an almost continuous fringing reef. On Mafia and other islands, patch reefs predominate on the western sides and well-developed fringing reefs on the eastern sides that may be among the finest remaining reefs in the region. Reefs around Mafia alone support 350 species of fish and 40 genera of corals. Another portion of this ecoregion, the Basaruto Archipelago supports a diverse range of marine habitats, including deep-sea areas, coral reefs, rocky intertidal areas, sandy beaches, tidal sand flats, seagrass meadows, and mangrove communities. Several endemic marine species occur here. The region also contains mangrove and extensive seagrass beds. One of the most diverse coral, mangrove, AND seagrass complexes in the western indian ocean, including Extensive mangroves and coral reefs that exhibit some endemism in reef invertebrates and fish

Selected Species: Important species include dugong (Dugong dugon), breeding humpback whale (Megoptera novaenglia), Blainville’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris). Gervais’ beaked whale (M. europaeus), green turtle (Chelonia mydas), loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), roseate tern (Sterna dougallii), greater crested tern (Thalasseus bergii), masked booby (Sula dactylatra), brown noddy (Anous stolidus) and mollusk species such as the pearl oyster (Pinctada margaritifera) and the red helmet shell (Cypraecassis rufa). Mangrove species include crab plover (Dromas ardeola), African spoonbill (Platalea alba), Madagascar malachite kingfisher (Alcedo vintsioides), and Madagascar fish eagle (Haliaeëtus vociferoides).

General Threats: The major causes of coastal degradation are soil erosion, domestic, agricultural and industrial pollution, and tourist activities. Agriculture and deforestation lead to severe erosion with subsequent flushing of sediments, affecting rivers and coral reef areas. Tourism and associated overcollection of shells and coral pose another threat. Mangroves are heavily exploited for firewood, charcoal production, and for protein resources (fish, crustaceans, mollusks). The abundance of mangrove oysters (Crassostrea cucullata) has been decreasing rapidly because of the high level of uncontrolled exploitation. Overfishing and the use of destructive fishing practices (e.g., dynamite, toxins, harpooning, nets with smaller than legal mesh size) are problematic. The pearl oyster (Pinctada margaritifera) has reportedly been overharvested to the point of virtual extinction and the red helmet shell (Cypraecassis rufa) has become rare due to heavy collection pressures by the ornamental shell industry.

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est Madagascar Marine [234] – Comoros, Madagascar, Mayotte and Iles Glorieuses (France), Seychelles

Geographic Location: Southwestern Indian Ocean, east of Mozambique

Biodiversity Features: The marine habitats surrounding this and other islands are diverse and include extensive and large barrier reefs—including one of the very few (less than 10) known true double barrier reefs in the world—mangrove forests, and mudflat ecosystems. These reef-lagoon environments are highly diverse, and include barrier and fringing reefs, inner reefs, pinnacles, and faro formations (small annular-shaped reefs resembling a small atoll). The diversity of corals is high, with over 60 coral genera present. The barrier reefs of southwest Madagascar are the most extensive in the Indian Ocean and among the largest in the world, with approximately 200 km of true barrier reef (including the 18-24 km-long Gran Recífe de Toliara) and a number of offshore coral islands. The Toliara reefs have high fish diversity, harboring over 550 species, and support an important artisanal fishery. Seagrass beds are of major importance as habitats for endangered species such as dugong (Dugong dugon) and several marine turtle species. The marine waters provide one of the world’s most important nesting sites for the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and nursery areas for humpback (Megaptera noveangliae) and other whales. These waters are home for 35% of all cetaceans worldwide and provide outstanding examples of virtually undisturbed sanctuaries. Because of its relatively undisturbed state, the area could serve as reference sites for worldwide coral reef monitoring and for scientific observations of underwater flora and fauna. AMONG THE LARGEST REEF ASSEMBLAGES WORLDWIDE. DIVERSITY OF MARINE HABITATS WITH HIGH DIVERSITY AND RELATIVELY INTACT CONDITION

Selected Species: Over 200 species of corals are found here; together they form reefs that house a high diversity of sponges, mollusks (over 400 species) and fishes (over 550 species). Fish include the coelacanth (Lahimeria chalumnae), silvertip shark (Carcharinus albimarginatus) and the threatened kei goby (Oligdepis keimsis). More familiar to many people are the two breeding species of turtles: hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata) and green (Chelonia mydas). Other sea turtle species are occasionally observed, including the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), loggerhead (Caretta caretta), and olive ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea). An outstanding diversity and quantity of cetaceans are found including sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus), breeding humpback whale (Megaptera novaengliae), spectacled porpoise (Australophaena dioptrica), Burmeister’s porpoise (Phoceona spinipinnis), dusky dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscurus), and Andrew’s (Mesoplodon bowdoini) and Blainville’s (M. densirostris) beaked whales. The dugong (Dugong dugon) is also found in these waters, but are rare due to overhunting.

General Threats: Sedimentation of coral reefs and mangrove forests has resulted from land degradation. Poverty, the effects of colonial exploitation, and rapid population growth, has resulted in increased pressures on resources. Destructive practices include heavy grazing pressures, deforestation, increased construction on slopes in coastal villages, and unsustainable agricultural practices (e.g., cropping over steep slopes, short fallow periods, slash-and-burn). Agricultural problems are an indirect result of the land tenure system within which farmers may claim property rights over any land they clear. The destruction of coastal sandbars has worsened sedimentation problems. The lack of sewage treatment networks results in raw wastes being channeled into coastal waters and dumped into coastal lagoons and mangrove swamps. Residues from pesticides such as DDT also find their way into the marine waters. High levels of traffic associated with crude oil transport from the Arabian Gulf results in oil contamination from tanker spills and discharge of dirty ballast waters. Excavation of coral for cement production and building destroys the reefs, as does collection of corals and shells, which also results in a disturbance for breeding turtles. Crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) infestations pose threats, especially when coupled with other destructive forces, as the proliferation of these starfish often appears to correlate with an increase in sediment from land sources. Overfishing is another problem, as stocks are now being fished to capacity due to the development of more sophisticated fishing skills. Destructive fishing practices (e.g., the use of fixed nets that capture juveniles, beach seines, speargun fishing, and the use of poison and insecticides) also degrade reef habitats.
Western Tropical Atlantic

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esoamerican Reef [235] – Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico

Geographic Location: Central America

Biodiversity Features: The Belize Barrier Reef is the largest barrier reef in the Western Hemisphere. Associated with the reef are extensive areas of relatively pristine coastal wetlands, lagoons, seagrass beds, and mangrove islands, which provide critical habitats for threatened species such as sea turtles and manatees (Trichetus spp.). largest barrier reef in the western hemisphere

Selected Species: Loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), green turtle (Chelonia mydas), American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus), Caribbean manatee (Trichetus manatus), magnificent frigatebird (Fregata magnificens), red-footed booby (Sula sula), brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis), and olivaceous cormorant (Phalacrocorax olivaceous) are characteristic of this system. Although many species are wide-ranging, sharks such as the bull shark (Carcharhinus leuca), nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum), reef shark (C. springeri), and scalloped hammerhead shark (Sphyrna lewini) can be found in this ecoregion. Similarly, several species of manta rays are found in this ecoregion, including the southern stingray (Dasyatis americana), cownose ray (Rhinoptera bonasus), and yellow stingray (Urolphus jamaicensis). Other species include the great barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda), spotted moray eel (Gymnothorax ocellatus) and 50 to 60 endemic coral species.

General Threats: Hurricanes are one of the principal disturbance factors affecting these reefs. Natural destruction becomes a threat when coupled with anthropogenic disturbances. Rapidly growing pressure from coastal development, tourism, and deforestation for agriculture, resulting in siltation from soil erosion, pollution from herbicides and fertilizers, all pose threats. Commercial and recreational overfishing, as well as oil spills, also threaten the integrity of this this reef system.

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reater Antillean Marine [236] – Bahamas, Cayman Islands (United Kingdom), Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Puerto Rico (United States), Turks and Caicos Islands (United Kingdom), United States

Geographic Location: Caribbean

Biodiversity Features: This ecoregion includes the Andros Barrier Reef, located 2-5 km offshore of the island of Andros in the western Bahamas. The reef is considered one of the finest barrier reefs in the Caribbean. Other sites in the region include habitat for the endangered American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus). Regionally outstanding complex of marine ecosystems with unusual biophysical features

Selected Species: Species include conch (Strombus gigas), white-tailed tropicbird (Phaethon lepturus), black-capped petrel (Pterodroma hasitata). Fishes of interest include stoplight parrotfish (Sparisoma viride), clown wrasse (Halichoeres maculipinna), cherub fish (Centropye argi), Nassau grouper (Epinephalus striatus), and spotted drum (Equetus punctatus). The humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) breeds here.

General Threats: Severe development pressures in this region, as well as poverty and high population growth rates have led to intensive and unplanned land use. Population densities exceed 500 people per square kilometer on some islands, and the effects can be seen in the loss of mangroves and

over exploitation of coral reef resources. Untreated wastes from coastal cities, towns, and tourist centers have led to degraded water quality,

anoxia, fish kills, coral bleaching, and, in some cases, pollution induced diseases. High organic loads from sugar cane mills and food-processing

plants contribute to the water pollution, as does

industrial effluent that often contains heavy

metals. Dredge-and-fill operations, eroded

sediment from coastal deforestation and poor

agricultural practices, fishing with bottom trawls,

and oil spills are further threats that have taken

their toll on important habitats, including seagrass

beds and their associatedfish nurseries.

_S

outhern Caribbean Sea [237] - Aruba (Netherlands), Columbia, Netherlands Antilles (Netherlands), Panama, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela

Geographic location: Southern Caribbean

Biodiversity Features: The southern Caribbean Sea is home to extensive seagrass meadows, mangrove forests, and coral reefs that provide breeding habitat for many species of fish and shellfish. The Gulf of Paria between Venezuela and Trinidad and Tobago is particularly rich and provides a basis for major marine fisheries.

Selected Species: Manatees (Trichechea spp.), regionally endangered loggerhead (Caretta caretta), green (Chelonia mydas), hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), and Kemp’s ridley (L. kempii) turtles live in the south Caribbean Sea. Marine fish species include Bocon toadfish (Amphichthys cryptocentrus), and the hogfish (Cachnolaimus maximus). A newly discovered species from the drum and croaker family, Stellifer chaoi, calls these waters home.

General Threats: Chemical pollution produced by industry and agriculture, silt from dredge and fill operations, and poor land management pose threats to these ecosystems, as do untreated wastes from coastal cities, towns, and tourist centers (10% of wastes are currently treated). Eutrophication and anoxia in nearshore waters have led to the decline of reefs and seagrass beds. Industrial wastes and hydrocarbon pollution has resulted in fish kills. Mercury pollution is a threat, especially in Venezuela’s Puerto Moron. Chronic oil pollution from oil drilling in Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, and Barbados has wiped out mangrove swamps, seagrass meadows, and coral reefs. The loss of topsoil due to slash and burn forest clearing for large monoculture agricultural productions has resulted in sedimentation. Overfishing of reefs and harvesting of mangrove wood for fuel is a further threat. In terms of tourism, this region is second only to the Mediterranean. Coupled with overpopulation and rapid growth in coastal cities, tourism has led to degradation of coastal habitats. Impacts on species includes the death of sea turtles and marine mammals from ingestion of floating tar, as well as loss of nesting sites for turtles and hunting for meat and shells, and drownings in fishing nets (e.g., shrimp trawls).

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ortheast Brazil Shelf Marine [238] – Brazil

Geographic Location: Northeastern Brazil, south of the Amazon River delta

Biodiversity Features: The combination of a wide continental shelf (up to 350 km) and low levels of freshwater input in this region allow for a variety of habitats, including mangrove forests, fringing and barrier reefs, and estuaries that act like inland extensions of the continental shelf. Where the shelf narrows in the central section of the Northeast Brazil Shelf region, the substrate consists almost entirely of carbonate sediments and is impacted by the South Equatorial Current. The wide Abrolhos Bank of the east Brazil shelf supports more diverse conditions, as it forms a physical barrier to the Brazil Current, and upwelling and land input become more significant. Taken together, these physical conditions create a diversity of shelf types, which in turn are home to large variety of species. DIVERSE SHELF HABITATS SUPPORT A WIDE VARIETY OF MARINE SPECIES, INCLUDING IMPORTANT BREEDING GROUNDS FOR HUMPBACK WHALES IN THE ATLANTIC

Selected species: This region provides a tropical breeding ground for humpback whales (Megaptera noveangliae), as well as the smalleye hammerhead (Sphyrna tudes). Several species of marine turtles, including the breeding leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) and green turtles (Chelonia mydas), exist in these waters, as do the hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) turtles.

General Threats: Overfishing, including destructive fishing practices, as well as development threaten the reefs across this ecoregion. Recreational activities and tourism further damage the integrity of the reef ecosystem.

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