The theology of the balaam oracles: a pagan diviner and the word of god

dillo."³ This event was long remembered by the prophets of Israel who were

used of God to point back to the Mosaic covenant.

Hosea claims that Israel's persistent attachment to Baal only adds

to the disgrace of Shittim (Hos. 5:2; cf. Num. 25:1), for on that

black day of Israel's youth the excitement of Yahweh's discovery

of Israel as "grapes in the wilderness" turned to sour disgust.

"Israel consecrated themselves to Baal" (Hos. 9:10): They even

"ate sacrifices offered to the dead" on that occasion, replies

the psalmist (Ps. 106:28). Such a revolting apostasy can hardly

be regarded as insignificant.⁴

The Baal of Peor in the passage is taken by Habel to be a

designation of the Canaanite Baal, rather than just a local agricultural

deity.

It can be argued, however, that there were many manifestations of

the role these peoples, along with the Canaanites, were to play as "a

constant danger for the religion of the Israelites." Van Imschoot, Theology

of the Old Testament, I, 70.

^l E.g. , van Imschoot, Theology of the Old Testament, I, 37;

Beegle, Moses, The Servant of Yahweh, pp. 326-37.

in the Relevance of Ugaritic Materials for the Early Faith of Israel" (Un-

published doctor's dissertation, Concordia Seminary, 1962), pp. 35-42;

idem, Yahweh Versus Baal: A Conflict of Religious Cultures: A Study in the

Bookman Associates, 1964), pp. 24-26.

"peccadillo.”

212

alluded to above are consistent with a Baal cultus . . . the sin of

Peor persists even in Canaan, presumably because a conflict with the

same Baal prevails there (Josh. 22:17).¹

Habel then turns to the covenantal structure of Deuteronomy,

and the covenant renew nature of that book.² He observes that in Deuter-

onomy there are references to the events of Beth-Peor (Deut. 3:29; 4:26),

and concludes that "there is nothing inherently improbable in the claim that

Israelite tribes concluded a covenant ceremony in Transjordan and that Beth-

Peor provides the location for the event."³

The redemption experienced by the tribes at Baal Peor corres--

ponds to the release experienced in the exodus events of Exod. 19:4.

Through these events, including the covenant curse of the plague,

the participants were motivated to covenant renewal. The activities

at Beth-Peor, then offer a relevant "conflict" tradition which helps

to elucidate the original covenant of Deuteronomy.⁴

It is in this context, then, that the events of Numbers 25 take

on their true significance. The sequel to the Balaam narrative is not a minor

aberration, but an act of rebellion and spiritual treachery of vast consequence.

The deaths of the 24,000 Israelites alone should prove this to be true. The

act of faithlessness and perfidy was an assault on the covenant of such a
^l Ibid.

² This is a theme developed at length, from an Evangelical view-

point, by Meredith G. Kline, Treaty of the Great King: The Covenant Struc-

Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1963), pp. 13-44; reprinted in The Structure

1972) , pp. 113-53.

213

As Habel writes:

The later elaboration of this theme in Deut. 4, which forms a

prelude to the repetition of the statutes of the decalogue (5:1-21)

and the formal conclusion of the covenant, is intimately connected

with the specific motifs and terminology of the Sinaitic covenant

(in particular Exod. 19:3-6). Specific details of the Sinai covenant

experience are recalled (Deut. 4:9-14). There is a consistent

repudiation of all idolatrous forms on the grounds "that Yahweh

your God is a devouring fire, a jealous God" (Deut. 4:15-24).

And again it is this jealous overlord whose sovereign choice of

Israel as His precious possession and whose salvation of this

people from the mighty Egypt are so unique that they presuppose the

uniqueness of Yahweh (Deut. 4:20, 32-39). With due solemnity the

covenant witnesses of heaven and earth testify to the warning of this

jealous King against any corruption comparable to the golden calf

or the Beth-Peor incident (Deut. 4:25f. ). In short, the events of

Beth-Peor offer a notable example of the conflict motif of Yahweh

versus the gods of the land.¹

Such is the nature of the epilogue of the story of Balaam! This

is Israel's first experience with the fertility cult of Canaan; it would not be

her last.

In addition to the narrative proper in Numbers 22-24 and the

sequel in Numbers 25, there are a number of citations of Balaam in the

Old Testament. It is to these we now turn seriatim.

Midian, resulting from the events of Numbers 25. This war was to effect

214

the zealous, was made commander of the army which represented each

twelve tribes. He led Israel in a victorious war over their spiritual

enemies.

Thcc first is verse 8. This verse details the results of the battle in which

five Midianite kings were slain. Then, with seeming afterthought (or is it

climax?), the writer adds, "and also Balaam the son of Beor they killed with

the sword" (Num. 31:8b). There is no indication given as to how Balaam

came to be numbered among the fallen kings. The fact that his name is

included at the end of this list of kings does suggest, however, that his

position in the enemy camp was one of leadership.

The Israelite army captured the women and the children of

Midian, after slaying the men. They brought the women and the plunder

back to the camp of Israel. Moses was angered that the soldiers had not
¹ This significant phrase is used "because the seduction had

violated the divinity and honour of Jehovah. " So Keil, The Pentateuch, III, 225.

war in Israel, " Numbers. Part 2, p. 17. Snaith, however, views the chapter

as but "a midrash, a story invented to illustrate a theme, a law or a regu-

lation." The midrash was developed to give sanction to the priestly line

of Phinehas, he argues. N. H. Snaith, The Century Bible: Leviticus and

Numbers, p. 324. Noth also views the chapter with considerable skep-

ticism: "It is, however, certain that the chapter is one of the very late

sections in the Pentateuch." Noth, Numbers, p. 229.

215

verse in the chapter of interest to us respecting Balaam:

Behold, these were the occasion¹for an act of treachery against

Yahweh for the sons of Israel through the counsel of Balaam in

the matter of Peor, and so the plague was among the congregation

of Yahweh. [Num. 31:16].

Thus it is in this verse that we are finally told that Balaam was

the instigator of the treachery against Yahweh described in Numbers 25.

The two verses in the present chapter (Num. 31:8, 16) raise a number of

questions concerning the activities of Balaam after he left Balak in Numbers

24.² But if these verses raise questions, they also answer others. These

verses tell us that (1) Balaam was the author of the seductive act that caused

a breach in the covenant between Yahweh and Israel, and (2) that he met with

what Dr. Robert G. Lee might call his "Pay Day."³

lation listing those kinds of people who were excluded from the congre-

gation of Israel.

No one who is emasculated, or has his male organ cut off,

shall enter the assembly of Yahweh.

No one of illegitimate birth shall enter the assembly of Yahweh;

none of his descendants, even to the tenth generation, shall

enter the assembly of Yahweh.

lexica.

of the Bellevue Baptist Church in Memphis, Tenn: "Pay Day--Someday"

(Waco, Texas: Word Records, W-6137-LP).

216

none of their descendants, even to the tenth generation, shall

ever enter the assembly of Yahweh, because they did not meet

you with food and water on the way when you came out from

Egypt, and because they hired against you Balaam the son

of Beor from Pethor of Mesopotamia, to curse you. Neverthe-

less, Yahweh your God was not willing to listen to Balaam,

but Yahweh your God turned the curse into a blessing for you

because Yahweh your God loves you. You shall never seek

their peace or their prosperity all your days.

[Deut. 23:2-7 (Eng. 1-6), N. A. S. B.]

A number of items of interest to our study are presented here.

firstly, if this chapter is from the Mosaic period (and the conservative

assumes that it is), then this is the earliest reference to the oracles of

Balaam outside the narrative proper. Whereas we do not know how the story

of Balaam was transmitted to Israel (on which see below), this passage

would indicate that the oracles were known by Israel at an early period.¹

Secondly, this passage expresses explicitly an important

element of the theology of the Balaam story that was implied in the text of

Numbers. Yahweh's action on Israel's behalf vis-a-vis Balaam was prompted

by his love for his people. Three times in one verse Yahweh is identified

as Israel's God, stressing the action of God is based on his relationship to

his people. He changed the curse into a blessing, "because Yahweh your

God loves you [ j~yh,lox< hvhy j~b;hexE yKi]" (Num. 23:6 [Eng. v. 5]).

rically opposed to the prevailing view of the date of the Book of Deuteronomy.

For a spirited defense of the integrity of the book, consult Kline, Treaty of

the Great King, pr 13-44; cf. Kenneth A. Kitchen, "The Old Testament in

Its Context: 2. From Egypt to the Jordan, " TSFB, LX (Summer, 1971), 3-11.

217

Thirdly, this passage details the ongoing judgment of Moab,

Moabite had the legal status of the bastard in Israel. Both were excluded

from the worship community for ten generations. Yet this principle was set

aside at least once by Yahweh's grace to a Moabitess of deep faith and out--

standing loyal love [ds,H,] , a reflection of Yahweh's character.¹

Joshua 13. --This chapter, in detailing the tribal allotment to

the tribe of Reuben, includes the following verse:

The sons of Israel also killed Balaam the son of Beor,

the diviner, with the sword among the rest of the slain,

[ Josh. 13:22, N. A. S. B.]

Here is another link in the chain of our knowledge concerning Balaam in the

Old Testament. The historical reference in the verse is to the death of Balaam

as recorded in Numbers 31. For scholars whose views of the integrity of the

Torah are less than standard, verses such as the present one help to point

to the antiquity of the tradition of Balaam in ancient Israel.² For our pur-

poses, this verse adds an important addition to our understanding of the

character of Balaam. In Joshua 13:22 Balaam is clearly denoted "the diviner,"

[sseOq.ha], the approach taken in our paper respecting his role.^3
1 The reference, of course, is to the story of Ruth. Although

flawed by some presuppositions, a book worthy of reference is Ronald M.

Hals, The Theology of the Book of Ruth, Facet Books, Biblical Series--23,

ed. John Reumann (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1969).

78-79.

under Joshua, there are the following words:

Then Balak the son of Zippor, king of Moab, arose and fought against Israel, and he sent and summoned Balaam the son of

Beor to curse you.

But I was not willing to listen to Balaam. So he had to bless

you, and I delivered you from his hand.

[ Josh. 24:9, 10, N. A, S. B.]

In the historical prologue of the dealings between Yahweh and His people

Israel we find this emphasis on Yahweh's dealings on Israel's behalf in the

events of the Balaam story. In the brief survey of Israel's history that is

given in but twelve verses (Josh. 24:2-13), it is of the greatest interest

that the story of Balaam be singled out in two verses. The importance of

the Balaam narrative for the early history of Israel cannot be underestimated.¹

Moreover, it is of the highest significance for our purposes that this verse

relates the incident of Balaam to Old Testament theology, and particularly

to the person of Yahweh. Yahweh says, "But I was not willing to listen

to Balaam. So he had to bless you, and I delivered you from his hand"

(Josh. 24: 10, N. A. S. B. ). The story of Balaam is but another chapter in the

book titled "The Record of Yahweh's Deeds for His People."
¹ While we do not agree with his estimation of the development

of the Pentateuch (Hexateuch), it is of interest to recall that von Rad regarded

Joshua 24:2-13 as "already a Hexateuch in miniature." Hence, he relates the

story of Balaam to the innermost kernel of Israel's tradition. See, "The Form-

Critical Problem of the Hexateuch," (written in 1938, appearing in the Beitrage

zur Wissenscioift Vom Alten Und Neuen Testament, 4th series, XXVI,. Stuttgart,

reprinted in Gerhard von Rad, The Problem of the Hexateuch and Other

p. 8.

his taunt to the king of Ammon:

Since now Yahweh, the God of Israel, drove out the Amorites

from before His people Israel, are you then to possess it? Do

you not possess what Chemosh your god gives you to possess?

So whatever Yahweh our God has driven out before us, we will

possess it. And now are you any better than Balak the son of

Zippor, king of Moab? Did he ever strive with Israel, or did

he ever fight against them? [Jud. 11:23-25, N. A. S. B.]

The verses quoted on the preceding page (Josh. 24:9, 10)

would indicate that Balak did indeed fight against Israel. His warfare was

not on the level of human conflict, but was in terms of supernatural struggles.

In the present verses, however, Jephthah refers to the acts of Balak with

great contempt because of their ineffectiveness. From a purely inductive

standpoint, it will be observed that Jephthah's reference to the events of

the Balaam story is incidental. So that this reference, too, is strong testi-

many to the antiquity of the events of the Balaam story in the traditions of

ancient Israel. Yahweh's actions for Israel in reversing the curse of Balaam

(and Balak) are part of the historical creed of ancient Israel.

Micah 6. --Whereas there are references in the prophets that

may reflect the oracles of Balaam,¹ there is one citation that is explicit.

the remnant of Edom," and Numbers 24:13. Balaam's fourth masa1. See A. B.

Davidson, "The Prophet Amos. I. Jehovah, God of Israel," Expos., 3d series,

V (1887), 161-79.

220

This is to be found in Micah 6:

Arise, plead your case before the mountains,

And let the hills hear your voice.

Listen, you mountains, to the indictment of Yahweh,

And you enduring foundations of the earth,

Because Yahweh has a case against His people;

Even with Israel He will dispute.

My people, what have I done to you,

And how have I wearied you? Answer Me,

Indeed, I brought you up from the land of Egypt

And ransomed you from the house of slavery,

And I sent before you Moses, Aaron, and Miriam.

My people, remember now

What Balak king of Moab counselled

And what Balaam son of Beor answered him,

And from Shittim to Gilgal,

In order that you might know the righteous acts of Yahweh.

[Micah 6:1-5, N. A S. B.]

We have already observed above that some have attempted

to include verses 6-8 of this chapter as part of the conversation between

Balaam and Balak which was not recorded in Numbers, but we regard such

as a methodological flaw.¹ Positively, the reference to Balaam and Balak

in this chapter is quite significant, in that it forms part of the rib motif

of Yahweh against His people who have broken His covenant. The events

of the story of Balaam are to be regarded as far more than just a sidelight

in the story of the wilderness wandering; these events are used in parallel

pp. 115-16. For a presentation of this viewpoint by Bishop Butler in the

present paper, see above, pp. 172-78. For a brief refutation, with reference

to literature, see above, p. 174, n. 1.

221

importance to the very Exodus itself! Micah says that in fact these events

(Micah 6:5). This is an example within the prophets, therefore, of the

theological import of our passage.¹

Nehemiah 13. --This chapter begins:

On that day they read aloud from the book of Moses in the

hearing of the people; and there was found written in it that

no Ammonite or Moabite should ever enter the assembly of

God, because they did not meet the sons of Israel with bread

and water, but hired Balaam against them to curse them. How-

ever, our God turned the curse into a blessing. So it came

about, that when they heard the law, they excluded all for-

eigners from Israel. [Neh. 13:1-3, N. A. S. B.]

Here is a splendid example of the use of the Old Testament by

the Old Testament, a clear citation of Deuteronomy 23:5-6, which we have

observed above. Nothing new is gained in this passage concerning the per-

son of Balaam; the significance for our present purpose is in the citation

itself.

From the several quotations in the Old Testament concerning

the events of the Balaam narrative, one thing is quite clear: the Balaam

incident was part of the foundation of Old Testament history and theology.

other biblical allusion to Balaam outside of Num 22 and 25 is pejorative.

Micah regards Balaam's oracles as part of Yahweh's saving acts." "Micah,"

JBC, 288. We may comment that the person of Balaam is always pejor-

ative; the oracles of Balaam are ever a part of Yahweh's saving acts.

222

The sequel to the oracles as recorded in Numbers 25 and 31 demonstrates

against religion of Canaan. The sorry struggle of Yahwism versus Baalism

popular religion of Israel which culminates in the stories of Elijah

and Elisha,¹ has its beginning in the events of Numbers 25.

Conversely, the oracles of Balaam, despite his manifold per-

sonal flaws (!) become part of the righteous acts of Yahweh, and they

form part of the basis for Yahweh's call to the people to return to their

covenantal relationship and responsibilities.

Moreover, it may be observed that the Balaam story is noted

in all three sections of the Hebrew Bible, Torah, Prophets, and Writings.

Certainly this is a subject worthy of theological investigation.
New Testament Citations of Balaam.

In the first chapter of the present study it was noted that there

are three places in the New Testament in which Balaam is mentioned.²

These citations are to be found in II Peter 2:15--16; Jude 11; and Revelation

2:14. It was observed above that in each case Balaam is regarded as the

example par excellence of false teachers. It would thus appear that for the

Sec also Leah Bronner The Stories of Elijah and Elisha as Polemics Against

223

was clearly evil. This is important confirmation to the approach taken in the

present paper concerning the nature of the Old Testament diviner. Balaam is

hardly "a great white soul who loved the will of God to his own worldly loss,"

would suggest. Balaam is the paradigm for false teachers, and so the New