The theology of the balaam oracles: a pagan diviner and the word of god

But the evident abuses of form criticism by those who have theo-

logical bias against the supernatural element in the Old Testament, should

not deter the believer in the biblical testimony to use the discipline of form

criticism in a constructive manner, and as a tool. A splendid example of

this is to be seen in the writings of Meredith Kline.² Similarly, despite

the abuses of the Heilsgeschichte method by those with demonstrable bias

against the supernatural, the method may still be employed by one who has

a high regard for the revealed, supernatural faith of the Old Testament.

And example of this may be seen in the same document by

Waltke in which he was critical of the form critics who use Heilsgeschichte

in a negative sense. In his own approach to the history of Israel this same

B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1963). This book is now out of print,

but the first two chapters which constitute the thesis have been reprinted

as an appendix to the new book by the same author, The Structure of Bibli-

1972). See also Herbert NT. Wolf, "Implications of Form Criticism for Old

Testament Studies," BS, CXXVII (October, 1970), 299-307.

416

so, he does not pit Geschichte (or Heilsgeschichte) against Historie; rather

he builds his Heilsgeschichte on the foundations of a rigidly historical app-

roach, accepting the supernatural and theistic premises of the text at face

value. This is the sound method, for it gives proper place to the actuality

of the events as well as to a valid theological interpretation of them. As

Goldingay states, "we cannot accept-interpretation when the events behind

it have been falsified--the events as they actually happened are the Heils-

We may draw this section of the present paper to a conclusion

by referring again to the outstanding survey of the problems of Old Testa-

ment theology by Gerhard Hasel, Old Testament Theology: Basic Issues in

doing of Old Testament theology. The first two (of the seven he lists) seem

to relate directly to our discussion of the problem of Heilsgeschichte. In

the first place, he suggests, "Biblical theology must be understood to be a

historical-theological discipline." By this Hasel means that the task is

"both to discover and describe what the text meant and also to explicate what

it means for toddy.”^4
1 Waltke, "History of Israel," p. 19.

² Goldingay, "'That You May Know, '" p. 90.

³ Hasel, Old Testament Theology, pp. 81-95. ⁴ Ibid., p. 81.

417

theology is understood to be a historical-theological discipline, it follows

that its proper method must be both historical and theological from the

starting point." This means that exegesis and theology must be interrelat-

ed. "A theology of the OT presupposes exegesis based upon sound princi-

ples and procedures. Exegesis, in turn, is in need of OT theology."¹

As to the problematic relationship of the two Testaments and

history-Heilsgeschichte, the same writer states that the best approach is

a multiplex approach:

In view of these considerations, it would seem that the only adequate

way to come to grips with the multiplex nature of the relationship be-

tween the Testaments is to opt for a multiplex approach, which makes

a guarded and circumspect use of typology, employs the idea of prom-

ise-fulfillment, and also uses in a careful way the approach of Heils-

the variety of connections between the Testaments and avoids, at the

same time, the temptation to explain the manifold testimonies in every

detail by one single point of view or approach and so to impose a single

structure upon testimonies that witness to something else. A multi-

plex approach will lead to a recognition of similarity and dissimilarity,

old and new, continuity and discontinuity, etc., without in the least

distorting the original historical witness and literal sense nor falling

short in the larger kerygmatic intention and context to which the OT

itself testifies.²

This will be the approach of the present writer. When the term

Heilsgeschichte is used, it is not used in contrast to historical reality, but

it is used to indicate the relationship of that historical reality to the ongoing
¹ Ibid., p. 83. ² Ibid., pp. 77-78.

418

logical point is made concerning the donkey episode in the Balaam narrative,

the theological point is based on, and grows out of, the historical reality

and its literal interpretation.

Moreover, this appears to the writer to be the biblical approach

itself. Witness, for instance, Paul's use of the Old Testament as illustrated

in Romans 5:12-21. In this passage Paul builds a major theological construct

on the pattern of the life and death of Adam. And yet the entire argument,

comparing the relationship of Christ to Adam, presupposes, indeed demands,

that Adam's fall is an historical event in the fullest sense of the word. This

is the multiplex approach that is used in a valid historical-theological disci-

pline--and approach which honors the Word of God on every level.

The building of great theological truths on legendary or quasi-

historical happenings (a la von Rad) leads to inconclusive results and sub-

jective evaluations. Conversely, there have been scholars of a fundamental

and evangelical stance, holding to the historical reliability of the text, who

have built on that text accretions of excessive flights into fanciful typology

(sometimes termed the "devotional level"). On methodological grounds

these latter believers are no more firmly based in their conclusions than

are von Rad et al.

419

Summary

Many contemporary Old Testament theologians have seen in

the Balaam narrative and oracles what might be termed the quintessence of

the theology of the Pentateuch. The present writer tends to agree with this

enthusiasm concerning this magnificent corpus, even with all of its bristling

problems. Such ebullient remarks, however, must be evaluated on the basis

of sound methodology in theological discipline. The present writer would

agree that the Balaam materials present great and lofty theological truths,

but he would insist that these theological truths must be based on real events

viewed in a rigidly historical approach. When the term Heilsgeschichte is

used by the biblicist, it may not be used to develop truth apart from histori-

cal reality, but rather to give expression to the truth being taught within that

historical reality. This is the stuff of which sound theology (and preaching)

is made.

The specific contribution of the Balaam incident to Old 'Testa-

ment theology appears to be its graphic development of the concept of the

blessing of Israel by Yahweh. The story is an unexpected and surprising

event. It appears to be an extended excursus on the theme of blessing, but

an excursus acted out in the arena of human history. The setting,

420

the personae, the conflicts and the v ry subject matter all contribute to one

with His people Israel.

That these events are recorded at such length in the Book of

Numbers is remarkable indeed, and not only for the reasons of the question

of authorship, as developed above.¹ The Book of Numbers does not present

the people of Israel in a very favorable light. In many respects the Book of

Numbers is a tragic account of rebellion and unbelief on the part of Israel

in living up to God's expectations for her.

The murmuring motif which begins in chapter 11 develops as the

action progresses until the entire population is affected. Time after time

the people of God showed themselves disloyal and discontent to His suzer-

ainty. Time after time the grumbling and. sinning people provoked 'Yahweh

to anger against them. The record of the places in which Israel camped is

a grim recital of the judgments of God on those who rebelled against His

rule. Some of these names include: (1) Taberah ("a burning"), Numbers

11:3; (2) Kibroth-hattaavah ("the graves of greediness"), Numbers 11:34;

and Kadesh-Barnea, the scene of unbelief that cost a generation its promise

of the land of Canaan, Numbers 13-14.

The thirty-eight years of Israel's existence that are chronicled
¹ See above, pp. 225-33.

421

silence occasioned by the sheer monotony of wandering in a forbidding

wilderness and waiting for a generation to die. These were years of bur-

ials--one dreadful burial after another. For the most part, the only relief

from the mond.-my of wandering and waiting is the record of a new sin and

its consequence. Sins of impatience,. of jealousy, of murmuring and apos-

tasy--such constitute the action of the book. The rebellion of Korah (Num.

16), the jealousy of Miriam and Aaron (Num. 12), and even the failure of

Moses (Num. 20) are recorded.

Hence, when the reader comes to Numbers 22:1 and reads that

Israel has finally reached the shores of the Jordan River and is encamped

across from the land of promise, the questions might well arise, Is this

indeed the people of promise? Does this nation really have a unique rela-

tionship to the God of the universe? Is Israel really the chosen people?

The answers to these questions come in a most unexpected man-

ner. The reader is taken to the enemy camp and he is given an inside view

of the machinations of Israel's foes in their attempts to destroy the nation.

The threat of Israel is felt to be so great to Moab that this latter nation

turns to a superstitious and supernatural means to attempt to ward off the

enemy. The resort to which Moab turns is the curse. And then God breaks

in! Yahweh, the God of Israel, confronts an internationally-known pagan

diviner in his homeland, far removed from the people of Israel. Yahweh,

422

the God who spoke to Moses, now speaks to a heathen mantic prophet.

play on the part of unbelievers in the realm of the occult. And God says,

"you shall not curse the people; for they are blessed" (Num. 22:12).

The fact of Israel's blessing by Yahweh is the major theme in

the Heilsgeschichte of this pericope. Israel is blessed by Yahweh from of

old. Balaam, the pagan bars attempts to reverse the curse to earn his

mantic fee, but is frustrated at every turn. The blessing of Yahweh on His

people is irrevocable. Demonic powers have no sway, supernatural means

are ineffective, pagan acts are useless in the face of the objective reality

of the blessing of Israel.

The institution of Israel's blessing is to be found in Yahweh's

choice of the primal patriarch, Abraham, as described in Genesis 12. At

the very beginning God's intent for this new people was made quite clear.

To Abraham He said, "I will bless you" (Gen. 12:2). The Balaam incident

may be regarded as a frontal attack by Satan on the foundational blessing of

God's people--a frontal attack that: was countered and defeated by the inter-

vention of Yahweh Himself.

As Mowinckel observed¹ the theme of the oracles may be stated

in a nuce: "Blessed is everyone who blesses you, and cursed is everyone
¹ See the discussion of Mowinckel's treatment of the Balaam

pericope, above, pp. 68-95.

423

who curses you" (Num. 24:9). This is a striking reminder of the original

and the one who curses you I will curse. And in you all the families of the

earth shall be blessed" (Gen. 12:3). The history of the Jewish people is

replete with examples of attempts to curse and destroy this nation. But

the Balaam incident seems to be the test case of the objective reality of the

blessing of Israel. As Habel observed respecting the events of Numbers 25, ¹

the story of Numbers 22-24 is also a record of no peccadillo. An attempt

was made at a direct, studied, and frontal attack-on the blessing of God's

people. But those who wished to curse Israel found themselves cursed.

Israel's blessing is unique (Num. 23:7-10), it is based on her unique rela-

tionship to Yahweh (Num. 23:18-24); it is absolute (Num. 24:3-9); and it

has an ultimate fulfillment in her deliverer from all enemies (24:15-19).

The enemies of Israel, present and. future, are under the curse they wished

had been placed on her (Num. 24:20-24).²

So the major thrust of the Balaam oracles centers on Israel's

blessing. Israel's blessing is unique because it is rooted in the character

of her unique God. Despite Israel's many failures in the years of wilderness

wanderings, God is still faithful to His people. Despite their many rejections

of view, see above, pp. 257-331.

424

of His leading and the several denials made of His goodness--He still leads

in Israel (Num. 23:23). Attempts to curse Israel are quite ineffective.

In addition to the emphasis on the blessing of Israel, the Heils-

person of Yahweh, the source of the blessing. It certainly would be an error

to try to find in the oracles of Balaam a complete catalogue of the attributes

of God. Hence, in this section of the present study, there will not be an

attempt to list all the ramifications of the Balaam oracles to the attributes

of God. Rather it is the purpose of this section to stress those attributes

of the divine being such as seem to be presented in bold relief in our circum-

scribed text. Moreover, there will not be made an attempt to group the

attributes of Yahweh along classical lines (personal as against constitutional,

absolute as against relative, communicable as against incommunicable).

In short, the presentation that follows is not that of the systematizer, with

a view to completion and systemization; the approach is that of the exegete,

with a view to presentation of the major emphasis.

A further limitation is felt by the writer, and this is the problem

one always faces in trying to "define" God. For even when one has said all

that he can say about the sublime Person of Yahweh, he realizes that he has

425

not said enough. In doing so, the student of the Person of Yahweh finds

all description, in the final analysis. He is greater than our descriptions

of Him. He is greater than the sum of the attributes in any of our lists.

R. T. France insists respecting our view of God, that we ever remember:

He is not an academic proposition. The Bible provides us with

no definition of the word "God'"--it cannot, because, as Pascal said,

"Dieu defini, d'est Dieu fini. " A God who is susceptible to the static

delineation of cold philosophy, or even of a rigid dogmatic theology,

is not the dynamic God of the Bible. God is known by His words and

His acts, not by abstract speculation. To try to tie Him down with

human definitions is idolatry; and it is idolatry which draws out some

of the most superbly scathing mockery of the Old Testament.¹

With these limitations in mind we may now turn to the attributes emphasized

in our text.

in the preface of an important theological treatise. This is found in the in-

troduction that A. van Selms gives to the book by C. J. Labuschagne, The

Incomparability of Yahweh in the Old Testament.

As far as the present author is aware, Dr. Labuschagne's book

is the first monograph to appear on the subject of Yahweh's incompar-

ability in the Old Testament. It is most remarkable, in view of the

abundance of Old Testament texts which bear witness of Yahweh's in-

comparability, that this subject up till now has not been treated in any

separate study.^2
1 France, The Living God, pp. 20-21.

² Labuschagne, The Incomparability of Yahweh in the Old

Testament, p. x.

426

neglect of this subject lies in its negative aspect. Against that, however,

he avers that "it should be clear from the first that the testimony of this

negative quality is the human expression for an all-transcendent positive

intensity of being."¹

Whereas our passage does not contain one of the standard form-

ulae for expressing the incomparability of Yahweh as delineated in the fine

treatise by Labuschagne, certainly the theme of His incomparability forms

one of the substructural premises from which the whole receives its unified

meaning.

It is felt by the present writer that Balaam is best seen not in the context

of "false versus true prophets," but as outside the realm of biblical prophecy.

He is neither a false prophet nor a true prophet in the usual sense of those

terms. For these terms are used as value judgments within the cultus of

Israel and within the context of revealed religion. Balaam is best under-

stood as a pagan who unwittingly steps into the focus of the drama of the

people of Israel and their God, and finds himself totally overwhelmed by

what happens to him.

^l Ibid.

² See above, pp. 163-205.

427

substructural postulate of the incomparability of Yahweh is seen in high

relief. Yahweh, the God of Israel, is totally unlike anything or anyone

Balaam had ever encountered or ever imagined. Balaam was a trafficker

in the spirit world, a craftsman with the supernatural. It would not be

reading too much into his character to see him as more than a clairvoyant,

but even in the context of idolatry in its demoniac aspects.¹

Whatever Balaam's experience had been in the past vis-a-vis

the spirit world, we recognize that he knows that he is up against Someone

totally unique when he confronts Yahweh. This is a means of teaching the

reader concerning the uniqueness, on the absolute level, of the God of

Israel. Be it known, the Balaam Oracles seem to be saying, the unique-

ness of the God of Israel is absolute. He is in fact, beyond compare. Truly

the psalmist praises Yahweh when lie writes:

High above the nations is Yahweh!

Over all the heavens is His glory!

Who may be compared to Yahweh our God,

Who is enthroned on high?

[Psalm 113:4-5]

In the-first oracle we read of Balaam extolling the uniqueness

of the people of God (Num. 23:9). They are distinct from all the nations,
^l For a strong presentation of the demonic nature of idolatry,

see Merrill F. Unger, Biblical Demonology: A Study of the Spiritual Forces

428

Certainly not in a racist sense!¹ Nor does the Bible allow us to regard

this difference in terms of her own self-worth.

This passage in itself, and in the larger context, never allows

even Israel to take center stage. The genuine theological truth presented

in the testimony to the uniqueness of Israel is the fact that Israel was relat-

ed to the Incomparable Yahweh. It is only because Yahweh is beyond com-

pare, that His people become distinct. As Labuschagne states in hiss thesis,

the incomparability of Israel was never to be taken as a "laudatory crip-

tion to an arrogant and self-glorifying nationalism," nor was it "an expres-

sion of religious chauvinism." Rather, he states:

Our investigation has brought to light that a unique position

among the nations was given to Israel as a result of her election by

Yahweh. Within the scope of her election Israel was called to prac-

tice an imitatio Dei, not only by obeying the commandment "You

shall be holy, for I Yahweh am holy" (Lev. 20:26), but especially

because, through her very existence in the world, her imitatio Dei

became manifest. As her God was a 'Single One' among the gods,

so Israel was a 'single one' among the nations; as her God was in-

comparable among the gods, so Israel was incomparable among the

nations. Israel owed her incomparability not to herself, but to

Yahweh, who mercifully elected and entered into communion with

her--Yahweh the incomparable God, of whom Israel has confessed

since His intervention in her history and still confesses this very day:

uniqueness of Israel has become the instrument of cursing by those who are