There has been a large amount of information with varying conclusions and recommendations published about ad/hd

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The prevalence is estimated to be 3% to 5% in children; data for adults are available.

The cause of AD/HD is unclear. Many myths and misconceptions about the cause circulate throughout the media, the educational system, and general uninformed coffee clutch conversations. Research shows that AD/HDD is not caused by poor parenting, too much television, or too much sugar or poor diet. Genetic and environmental factors are at the center of AD/HD research. Physiology - Scientists have found an approximately 10% reduction in the size and activity of specific areas in the frontal lobe and basal ganglia of AD/HD patients. Chemical Dysregulation - Some research cites insufficient amounts or the restricted flow of the neurotransmitter dopamine to the basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex (PFC) part of the brain. Frontal-Lobe Symmetry - AD/HD research has cited over-symmetry between the left and right frontal lobes in the brain. The left frontal lobe is more involved with approach behaviors and the right frontal lobe with avoidance behaviors. The right frontal lobe is a bit larger than the left in research cases involving subjects with AD/HD. Heredity – Genetic researchers have discovered a link between the DRD4 repeater gene and AD/HD. The studies suggest that up to 80 percent of the variance in the traits or characteristics associated with AD/HD due to an inherited biochemical. Head

Attention Deficit Disorder (AD/HD) typically has been categorized by three characteristic-types (Bender 1997) (Barkley, 1990; Maag & Reid, 1994):

• 
  Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork or other activities
  
• 
  Often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities
  
• 
  Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly
  
• 
  Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (not because of oppositional behavior or failure to understand instructions)
  
• 
  Often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities
  
• 
  Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental effort (such as schoolwork and homework)
  
• 
  Often loses things necessary for tasks and activities (e.g., toys, school assignments, pencils, books, tools)
  
• 
  Often is easily distracted by extraneous stimuli
  
• 
  Often is forgetful in daily activities
  

• 
  Often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat
  
• 
  Often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected
  
• 
  Often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which such behavior is inappropriate (in adolescents or adults, may be limited to feelings of restlessness)
  
• 
  Often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly
  
• 
  Often is “on the go” or often acts as if “driven by a motor”
  
• 
  Often talks excessively
  

• 
  Often blurts out answers before questions have been completed
  

• 
  Often has difficulty awaiting turn
  
• 
  Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g. “butts into” conversations and games)
  

Eric Jensen (2000) puts forth theory about AD/HD characterizing the condition into two categories, impulsiveness and time

disorientation. “Current evidence suggests that AD/HD is not so much a problem of attention or skill, but of performance (i.e., impulse control).”

For example, Johnny may know what 5x3 is, but when asked to complete

* Distinguishing the present from the future,

* Delaying immediate gratification. (Jenson 2000)

No two students with AD/HD display the same characteristics or identical behaviors as a result of the disorder. Not all symptoms apply to each student and symptoms vary in the degree or manner in which they affect each person. Sandra Rief points out “each child is unique and displays a different combination of behaviors, strengths, weaknesses, interests, talents, and skills.” She emphasizes:

It is important to recognize that any one of these behaviors is normal
in childhood to a certain degree at various developmental stages. For
example, it is normal for a young child to have difficulty waiting for his/

her turn, to have a short attention span, and to be unable to sit for very long.

However, when a child exhibits a significantly high number of these

AD/HD often is confused as a learning disability. It is classified as a neurological inefficiency in the area of the brain which controls impulses and aids in screening sensory input and focusing attention (Rief 1993). The lack of dopamine, the neurological chemical with transmits neurosensory messages

also is cited. Genetics is thought to be a chief cause. Studies have shown a

child with AD/HD has a family member with similar learning and behavior histories.

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), formerly P.L. 94-142, the Education of the Handicapped Act (EHA), define a learning disability as a "disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using spoken or written language, which may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or to do mathematical calculations." In a recent interview, Dr. Kenneth DeLuca explains, “In the case of a learning disability, the student needs the switch flicked a few times in order for the light to the psychological process involved in accomplishing a task to go on.” In the case of AD/HD, the switch won’t work, the light won’t go on. DeLuca states, “When the student with AD/HD says he can’t, it’s not because he won’t, it’s because, at the moment, he can’t.” Many times teachers have a hard time understanding this because one day
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the student can perform and complete the task in a brilliantly creative manner, and the next day the student falters, becomes frustrated, and avoids the task altogether.

Many times AD/HD also tags along with specific learning disabilities. Sandra Rief (1993) reports at least one third to one-half of her students with learning differences “display the behaviors and characteristics associated with AD/HD, even if they do not have the medical diagnosis or receive medical intervention.” According to some researchers, the presence of

learning disabilities with attention deficits could be as high as 30 to 40 percent (Lisa J Bain 1991).

To add to the confusion and challenge faced by the student, parents, and teacher, and can be accompanied by other mental disorders. Depression and anxiety are common companions. Eric Jensen (2000) explains, “Comorbidity (or overlapping conditions) is common in AD/HD sufferers.”

In fact, some studies suggest that only 3 percent of sufferers over

About 11 percent of AD/HD sufferers experience one other

condition, it can profoundly compromise functioning in multiple areas throughout the life span. The concern is paradoxical in that “AD/HD is both incorrectly diagnosed when it is not present and under diagnosed when it is present; and is both incorrectly treated and under treated.” Research and clinic experience suggest that AD/HD difficulties can lead to significant educational, health, social, and economic problems.” (1998) The NADDA advocates the establishment of a standard of care for the diagnosis and treatment of AD/HD, pointing out that

though “controversy abounds about aspects of its diagnosis and treatment, the research and clinical experience over the past few decades have been sufficient to begin to identify certain principles regarding the evaluation and treatment of AD/HD.” (1998)

The association outlines eleven Guiding Principles for the Diagnosis and Treatment of AD/HD: 1.) Evaluate and treat the whole person; 2.) AD/HD should be suspected but not presumed; 3.) AD/HD may present across the life span; 4.) A comprehensive assessment is necessary for an accurate diagnosis; 5.) The evaluation and treatment of AD/HD should be conducted by a qualified professional; 6.) Response to medication should not be used as the basis to diagnose AD/HD; 7.) Diagnosis should be based primarily upon the SDM-IV AD/HD criteria; 8.) Diagnosis and treatment of AD/HD should involve others familiar with the person undergoing the evaluation; 9.) Treatment should often involve more than one discipline working cooperatively; 10.) Stimulant

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medications are the benchmark of treatment for most AD/HD patients; 11.) Practitioners should become familiar with current research and diagnostic tools.

seven and last at least 6 months. Also, the levels of interference or disturbance caused by the symptoms are more severe and frequent that the norms for the person’s represented age group; and that the symptoms or behaviors caused by the

symptoms create a real disability in at least two areas of the individual’s life, such as school, home, the work place, or social settings. Sandra Rief (1997) makes note that, “Just meeting the criteria in DSM-IV does not confirm a diagnosis of AD/HD. It is just the beginning of the information–gathering process.” She lists: 1.) the history of the child’s medical, developmental, school, and family; 2.) other information gathered through interview and questionnaires with parents, other family members, and teachers; 3.) behavior rating scales filled out by the parents, classroom teachers, and other adults that work frequently with the child (school counselor or special education teacher); 4.) gathering and reviewing information that must be supplied by the school such as work samples and other evidence of academic, behavioral, and social/emotional issues; 5.) a review of school records (report cards, citizenship grades, teacher comments, standardized school achievement tests, anecdotal records, etc.); 6.) an observation of the child
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functioning in various school settings; and, 7.) assessments (academic achievement testing, intelligence testing, and a physical examination).

It is the treatment of the disorder that causes the greatest controversy and misconception of AD/HD. The media has done its share in

publishing and broadcasting on both useful and helpful information, along with harmful and misleading information on the cause and treatment of AD/HD. Unfortunately, the general public, teachers included, tend to listen to the media before listening to the professionals in the field of neurological disorders and

special education.

The Challenges of Learning with AD/HD and Assisting the Student with AD/HD to Learn

To learn is to gain knowledge or understanding of a skill in by study, instruction, or experience (Merriam-Webster 2002). In order to learn, a student must be able to pay attention to the instruction and follow the steps involved in processing the information to be learned. The PBS series and Web site, Different Minds, defines “paying attention” as “the brain's ability to take all of the stimuli around us, immediately categorize and organize information as relevant or irrelevant, and focus the mind on one thing.” (2001) The site allows the visitor to experience, first hand, the challenges and frustrations a student with AD/HD faces in the classroom on a daily basis. “For a child in a classroom, paying attention to the teacher means filtering out as many as 30 other students

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and the dynamics between them, visual or outside distractions, noises, and more.” (2001)

KidSource Online describes what it is like to have Attention

Deficit Disorder:

Imagine living in a fast-moving kaleidoscope, where sounds, images, and
thoughts are constantly shifting. Feeling easily bored, yet helpless to keep
your mind on tasks you need to complete. Distracted by unimportant sights
and sounds, your mind drives you from one thought or activity to the next.
Perhaps you are so wrapped up in a collage of thoughts and images that you
don’t notice when someone speaks to you. (2001)
You became so lost in your collage of thoughts that you didn’t hear the
teacher repeatedly call on you. The other students laugh. You are tagged an airhead or a space cadet. This is what a student with AD/HD encounters in the traditional classroom setting on a regular basis. Some days it isn’t as bad; some days it is worse. The longer the student is required to sit still, focus, and listen, the worse the distractions become, and the degree of stress and anxiety increase. Depending upon the characteristics and symptoms of AD/HD experienced by the student, she may drift off into a dream-like state or he may begin to fidget and distract the rest of the class. Some students with comorbid AD/HD characteristics may become angry and agitated. Others may become emotional and cry. However, the student with AD/HD reacts to the situation; it is clear, the student is overwhelmed at the moment and is not learning.

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The student with AD/HD is at risk for experiencing low self-esteem, often times viewing herself as a failure. Teachers may describe the student with the following phrases:

• 
  “Why can’t she follow directions like the other children?”
  

• 
  “I never know what to expect from him!”
  
• 
  “He doesn’t sit still!”
  
• 
  “She can’t seem to concentrate.”
  
• 
  “He doesn’t turn his papers in, even when he has them.”
  
• 
  “He can’t stay focused on the discussion.”
  
• 
  “She interrupts with irrelevancies in the class.”
  
• 
  “He is like a cyclone; when he comes in, everything is disrupted.”
  
• 
  “Sometimes I wonder how the other students concentrate at all when I constantly have to call on him to be still.”
  

Her peers may describe her with the following remarks:

• 
  “She’s just dumb.”
  

• 
  “He can’t even do the work on the board.”
  
• 
  “She’s mean. She doesn’t understand when she hurts other people’s feelings.”
  
• 
  “Why do I have to be a field trip buddy with him?”
  
• 
  “He never gets his work done.”
  
• 
  “I don’t want her on my team.”
  
• 
  “Why does he have to be in our group for the project?”
  
• 
  “He never tries to get his homework in.”
  
• 
  “Can’t we choose someone else?”
  

And her parents may describe her with these terms:

• 
  “Why can’t she get up, get dressed, and get to the breakfast table without a fuss or constant reminding, like my other two kids?”
  
• 
  “What is it with this kid?”
  
• 
  “How can he lose one of every pair of shoes we buy?”
  
• 
  “Whose turn is it to help Jamie get out of bed?”
  
• 
  “How does all the extra time she requires affect out other kids? Is this fair to them?”
  
• 
  “I never know with this one. Sometimes it is do draining working with him.” (Bender 1997)
  

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Eric Jensen (2000) explains that successful (experienced) educators

What do they do? First and foremost, they maintain a positive attitude.

also have learned to tweak the balance between control/direction and

accommodations you learn to make for the AD/HD learner also benefit

the rest of your students. Managing AD/HD effectively requires good
basic teaching skills. (2000)
Jensen’s statement is a recurring theme in most of the literature on including and teaching the student with AD/HD in the traditional classroom environment. Teaching the student with AD/HD requires an educator to reaffirm why he became and educator, to think and teach at times “outside of the box”, and to utilize good basic teaching skills. Jensen states, a positive attitude benefits the student with AD/HD, as well as all of the students in the classroom.

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Assistive Technology: Empowering the student with AD/HD

Statistics show that the majority of us are visual learners. Sandra Rief (1993) cites statistics that show the majority of learn best through visual and tactile/kinesthetic input. Only 15 percent of all learners tend to be auditory. She emphasizes the importance of these statistics particularly for the secondary or post-secondary teacher that tends to be more lecture-based with teaching style. She warns, “With you doing all the talking, there are a high percentage of students you’re not reaching.”

Statistics show students retain:

• 
  10 percent of what they read;
  
• 
  26 percent of what they hear;
  
• 
  30 percent of what they see;
  
• 
  50 percent of what they see and hear;
  
• 
  70 percent of what they say; and
  
• 
  90 percent of what they say and do. (Rief 1993)
  

Dr. Rita Dunn defines learning styles as “the way in which each learner begins to concentrate on, process, and retain new and difficult information.” Much of the literature on the subject describe learning styles as the way an individual perceives and processes information as he or she deals with daily tasks and situations. Statistics show:

• 
  One third of our students do not process auditorily.
  
• 
  Over 60 percent of our students prefer and perform better with a tactile-kinesthetic learning activity.
  

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• 
  At least 50 percent of our students are frustrated by left-brain, sequential-type assignments and are global, holistic, and random in their organization and processing of information.
  

designs, colored visuals and manipulatives (students with AD/HD and other learning disabilities many times have significant weakness with left

brain/sequential tasks; but are gifted spatially); Verbal re-enforcement and review through group interaction, electronic devices, and computer software; and Conceptual games, software, and activities; are incorporated into the course delivery and activities, giving all students with their varied learning styles and preferences, the equal opportunity to learn effectively. Rief emphasizes that teachers must recognize that students do learn differently and multisensory techniques provide a variety of approaches to aid the teacher with the enormous task of recognizing and meeting the learning style and preferences of every student in his classroom, including the student with AD/HD.

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Reif gives examples and suggestions of various multisensory activities using both low and high end assistive technology devices from colored markers to word processing software with spell checkers to tape recorders and calculators to computer games and other interactive learning e-devices to the World Wide Web and search engines. Rief advocates that all new information be presented to the students through multisensory instruction. “Involve all of the sense, providing auditory, visual, and tacitle-kensthetic input.” She encourages the teacher to reteach information in a variety of different ways:

• 
  For visual learners, supply maps, graphs, pictures, and diagrams and write on overhead/board with colored markers, pens, or chalk.
  
• 
  Point, highlight, model, and demonstrate.
  
• 
  Teach through clustering, mind mapping, and other graphic organizers.
  
• 
  For global learners who need to see the whole picture before making sense of the parts, show the end products.
  
• 
  For auditory learners, read aloud, paraphrase, employ music, rhythm, melody, discussion, and tapes
  
• 
  It is very helpful to have material that students need to learn on tape so they can listen to it. Allow students to bring in small tape recorders to record teacher lectures (to supplement note taking).
  
• 
  For tactile/kinesthetic learners, provide lots of hands-on experience that promotes learning by doing. Use manipulatives for teaching math, role playing, dance and movement, acting-out.
  
• 
  Use computers and games.
  
• 
  Offer many choices (for example, book reports, science projects, oral reports). (1993)
  

“Hook the students in the instruction emotionally.” Rief emphasizes the use of learning aids (assistive technology devices) to accomplish student involvement into their own instruction according to their own style of learning.

Research has shown assistive technology (AT) empowers students with learning problems to work and learn. Christopher Lee (1991) emphasizes that learning

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problems are not cured or outgrown. For instance, one of the myths about AD/HD is that the child outgrows the disorder as he enters into adulthood. Whether a learning problem or neurological disorder, research shows these conditions continue on in adulthood. It is though that the reason many people believe AD/HD disappears in an adult is because by the time the person with AD/HD has entered adulthood, she has made compensations for the effects the disorder has on her and made the proper adjustments to carry out her day-to-day tasks. Assistive technology provides a means for the person with learning problems to adjust and accomplish tasks independently.

Whether it is organizing a class report, writing a letter to a friend at home with

the assistance of a word processor, checking for spelling errors in a memo

to a co-worker, or using a calculator to help keep score in a card game,

assistive technology devices may provide the needed support to accomplish

effectively tasks in a variety of contexts and settings. (Lee 1999)

Lee clarifies the term assistive technology. “Tools or assistive technology are devices and equipment designed to make your life easier or to help you perform a specific task.

Everyone uses tools. A dictionary is used to spell a word. Color high lighters are

used to help people pick out important words in a book. If you are one of more

than 49 million Americans with disabilities, matching the right tools with your

assistive devices help you become more involved at work, at school, or in

everyday living. Tools are for people of all ages and with all disabilities,

illnesses or impairments.” (Lee 1999)

Literature on teaching to the student with AD/HD or learning differences in the classroom emphasizes the use of color to differentiate and organize information. Lee emphasizes color-coding using both low end and high end technology. “Color-coding on files, drawers, and clothing help a person with a learning disability to remember something important.” Lee states that just by changing a computer monitor’s background color can assist greatly a students reading ability. “Workers (students) with learning disabilities can make their work (learning) more efficient by altering colors, font, or print size on a computer screen.” Using color to emphasize and organize information and material is inexpensive and effective.

Many different AT devices are available to assist students with organizing their schedules and accomplishing their assignments and tasks. For instance, most students with AD/HD are inconsistent with their grammar, spelling, vocabulary, writing and reading. The degree of the abilities varies from day-to-day. Simple spell

checkers included with word processing applications ease the frustration for a student that has trouble with grammar, spelling, and vocabulary. Free dictionary and thesaurus applications found on the Web, such as Atomica (http://www.atomica.com) help the student check a word just by placing the cursor it, holding down the Alt key, and clicking the left mouse button. Up pops a window with the spelling, definition, synonyms, and an audible pronunciation of the word. There also is an encyclopedia feature providing a background on the word’s definition. “This Web-based tool is so low on overhead that it doesn’t even require a browser. It’s a free, downloadable utility that resides in the Windows system tray, where it is available whenever you are connected to the Web,

Students with AD/HD tend to display dyslexic symptoms. A convenient and practical proofing tool is the Qucktionary Reading Pen, a portable assistive reading device to help the student with reading and spelling difficulties. It can go and be used anywhere. “With the Quicktionary Reading Pen you can scan a printed word and see its definition displayed on the built-in LCD screen. It will also read out the definition. An earphone is included, so you don't disturb other people.

There are devices and software, such as Voice Xpress or TYPEIT4ME, which recognize speech and enable the user to dictate to the computer, converting oral language to written text. You talk to your computer instead of typing. “You can talk to Internet Explorer e-mail chat and just about any program you normally type in. It's easy just install the program teach the program how you speak and begin to dictate.” (Dealtime 2002) Tape recorders help students review class materials and can

be used in conjunction with speech recognition software that converts the audio into text. Software, such a WINN with optical character recognition capabilities allows the student to scan a book or other written material and convert the text to speech (audio). Out Spoken and JAWS are screen reading programs that allow you to use most PC programs, read what is on the screen, and provides a keyboard alternative to the mouse pointer. Write Outload is an easy-to-use word processor and screen reader for the MacIntosh. The Ultimate Reader scanner is a scanner-text-speech processing program in which text can be transferred from the scanner or other files into the reader program. “Special

features include the capability to change text, background color, and highlight colors. It

also extends to the computerized speech, allowing a user to change pitch, frequency and

modulation to whichever sounds clearest”. (Christopher Lee 2000) WebSpeak is a non-visual Web browser that provides the student with efficient and direct access to Web pages and the resources of the Internet. The program understands HTML, interprets the Web pages and then lets the student brows through the pages by reading them back to the student. The student controls the pace as which the program reads.

Another program that can be downloaded for free from the Web is HELP Reader. This program helps teach students to read by reading along with the student.  “Whether you’re younger or older, new to reading or have your own library, HELP Read should be able to help you read more and understand more of what you read.” The program is part of the Hawaii Education Literacy Project (HELP):

Over the last eight years it has remained apparent that the need to be literate is

Christopher Lee points out that these tools appeal to the multi-sensory style of learning incorporating Auditory, Visual and Tactile, Spatial, Verbal Re-enforcement and Review, and Conceptual instructional techniques with electronic devices and software.

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A device like Hewlett-Packard’s CapShare 920, the size of a CD player, allows the student and teacher to capture, store and share paper documents while away

Many teachers are incorporating the use AlphaSmart 3000 boards (or like devices such as Dream Writers and eMates) in with their classroom instruction and activities. The introduction of these writing devices provides schools with a more affordable option to the PC, and allows each student the use of a word processor in their own classroom. Boston College undertook a year-long study researching the use of AlphaSmart boards in the classroom that included observations before and after the AlphaSmart ratio was increased, student interviews, teacher interviews and student

38

drawings. The study focuses on how teaching and learning changes when each student

The study cites previous research on computers and writing:

was performed before large numbers of computers were present in schools,

technology provides alternative approaches to sustaining student interest,

technical support. Full access and subsequent increased use of technology also led to an increase in peer conferencing and individual instruction as well as a

decrease in whole group instruction.” The findings of the study suggested a positive impact on the use of technology in the upper elementary classroom when each student has individual and full access to a word processor. When each child had individual and full access to their own AlphaSmart and was able to take
the machine home to do homework assignments, there was “a greater sense

of student ownership, responsibility, independence and empowerment.”

The participating teachers all noted in the post-study interview that the

by providing each student with their own AlphaSmart to use, each

student exhibited a greater sense of importance towards their work.

All three teachers spoke of how the students became more responsible

empowered when they had their own Alpha Smart.
(Russell, Bebell, Cowan, Corbelli 2002)

Behavioral problems decreased and ease of classroom management increase. Students were free to create their own individual work spaces by taking their

AlphaSmarts to corners of the classroom, out in the hallway, or to the library to write and compose, use iBooks, or complete their assignments. Students could use their “own” AlphaSmart at all times in the classroom and take their machine home in the evenings or over the weekends. The team from Boston University concluded:

Given the relatively low cost of AlphaSmarts and the resulting benefits

makers to consider policies and practices that promote full access to

advocate or have actively attempted to use technology for instructional

of the managerial and technical issues that impeded regular use of

Using a computer or an electronic device, such as an Alpha

Smart, with specialized software for writing makes the writing process easier

for most students, especially students with learning differences, and allows the

students to visual organize their thoughts and write more in a shorter amount of

time . The way to learn how to write is to do a lot of writing, and using a

computer and software for writing can make the process of practicing writing

easier. The same applies to any academic discipline such as math, reading,

science, the acquisition of a foreign language; the way to learn is to practice.

The computer and specialized software makes it faster

and easier to practice and learn; and facilitate the teacher’s ability to meet all
the learning styles and difference in the classroom, including the student with
AD/HD.
Assistive Technology devices provide various means and
methods for presenting learning materials and assignments in new and different
formats. AT devices incorporated in to the curriculum make it easier for the teacher to create a learning environment for ALL students, regardless of the different learning styles and differences represented in the classroom. Varying methods of course delivery and assessment has shown increased motivation on the student’s part to participate and successfully complete learning modules and assessments.

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Students in a Denver, Colorado “alternative” high school science class for at-risk children were assigned a project of creating wetlands on the border of the school’s property. They were to design the wetlands and make observations in water

The study found “the combination of PBL (Project-Based Learning), inquiry approaches in science, and the use of technology” resulted in students at the alternative high school becoming more motivated and engaged in their project-related work.

They work on the project after classes are over, during other
classes, and on holidays. This is quite unusual since the
qualifications for students to come to this high school include
that you have already dropped out of school at least once.
(Orey, Winward, Distefano 2001)

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The study also was conduct within the “regular” high school in the context of the general classroom. The comparison group used thermometers and stops watches for their data sampling, while the in-classroom study group used the hand held Trekkers.

the students to participate, but weren’t sure if that would have an effect on their performance on the SCAP test.

Christopher Lee (2000) points out that learning differences not only affect reading and writing abilities, but also affect math skills and social perception, as well. The above-mentioned devices and software aid students with math, organizational, management, and social skills in the same manner as reading and writing skills. Lee lists and gives overviews of many low and high end assistive technology devices and tools in the areas of reading, writing, math, and social difficulties. Lee concludes that assistive technology extends beyond the classroom. “Assistive technology is a lifelong process. Decide what you want to do better. Then decide if assistive technology can help you do it better.” The teacher is able to start the AT decision process in a student’s life by incorporating assistive technology devices and methods of instruction in with the
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methods of course material delivery, activities, assignments and assessments; and allowing the student to match and adapt the tools to their own particular learning style and preferences.

Multiple Intelligences, Multisensory Instruction with Assistive Technology Devices and the AD/HD Learning Style

Howard Gardner, developmental psychologist, originally theorized that humans have seven intelligences, but has since included an eighth (Gardner 2000): 1) Linguistic – syntax, phonology, semantics, pragmatics; 2)

Musical – pitch, rhythm, timbre; 3) Logical mathematical – number, categorization, relations; 4) Spatial – accurate mental visualization, mental transformation of images; 5) Bodily/kinesthetic – control of one’s own body, control in handling objects; 6) Interpersonal – awareness of other’ feelings, emotions, goals motivations; 7) Intrapersonal – awareness of one’s own feelings, emotions, goals, motivations; and 8) Naturalist – recognition and classification of objects in the environment. He divided them into three main groups: 1) Object-related intelligence - mathematics and logic; 2) Object-free intelligence - music and language; and 3) Personal intelligence - the psychological perception we have of our individual selves and others (Gardner 1983). Developing the classroom activities and lesson plans to include each of the eight intelligences, can assure a

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stimulating and engaging learning environment that meets the needs of all the learners in the classroom, including the student with AD/HD.

the artists, musicians, entrepreneurs, naturalists, designers, dancers, and others who enrich the world in which we live. (Persons with AD/HD excel and make significant contributions in the aforementioned career fields.) Unfortunately, many children who have these gifts don’t receive learning reinforcement in school, and their unique talents, skills, and ways of learning are overlooked by a heavily linguistic and logical-mathematical public school system. (Gardner 2000)

Sandra Rief, educator and resource specialist in the area of learning disabilities and AD/HD, advocates the recognition of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences in curriculum planning through the use of multisensory instruction in the classroom. Students with AD/HD learn best in a multisensory learning environment in small groups with their peers (Rief

1998). Multisensory instructional methods include: 1) Auditory techniques such as rhythm, melody, song and rap; 2) Visual and Tactile materials, games, and computer software; 3) Spatial designs, colored visuals and manipulatives; 4) Verbal re-enforcement and review through group interaction, electronic devices, and computer software; 5) Conceptual games, software, and activities (Rief 1993). Technology devices and software adds a different and engaging

45

dimension to multisensory instruction in the classroom for all learners, especially the student with AD/HD. Including assistive technology in the standard curriculum enhance the classroom learning atmosphere and “help students with cognitive disabilities achieve in a challenging curriculum” (Warger 1998)

Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development centers on learning and the mastery of specific cognitive skills through social and intellectual partnerships and interaction. He theorizes that an individual’s cultural and cognitive development starts “on the social plane and then on the psychological

46
plane”, appearing between people as an “ interpsychological category”, then within the individual as an “interpsychological category”, especially in the areas of voluntary attention, logical memory, the formation of concepts, and the development of volition (Tharp and Gilmore 1991). These are cognitive areas in

In a study by Globerson and Guterman (1989), computer tools (software) were used to provide assistance and guidance within the learner’s zone of proximal development as part of the internalization process in developing reading competencies and reading-related metacognitions. The study “was

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designed to test the general hypothesis that intellectual partnership with a computer tool that provides reading-related, metacognitive-like guidance leads to the internalization of the guidance, which, in turn, facilitates better text comprehension and transfers to writing ability. The study’s hypotheses were
supported, which suggests that a computer tool can serve as a “more capable peer” (Vygotsky, 1978) or assistive coach in a learner’s zone of proximal development and can thus facilitate the development of competency. (Globerson and Guterman 1989

Assistive technology (AT) empowers students with learning problems to work and learn. (Lee 2000). Technology exists that can substitute

Chapter II reviewed the literature and research regarding the possible causes, characteristics, symptoms and diagnosis of AD/HD. The unique learning style and behavioral characteristics of the student with AD/HD were identified and compared with progressive course delivery methods such as

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multisensory instruction. Assistive Technology devices were examined and related to the various student learning preferences associated with multisensory instruction. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences theory was examined and related to the learning styles associated with the AD/HD learner. The use of assistive

This chapter provide an overview of the procedure used in this study to determine if a relationship exists between the teacher’s integration of multisensory instructional methods through assistive technology devices and tools in with the course curriculum and a noticeable easing of the burden and challenge experienced by the teacher in academically stimulating and teaching the learning styles and preferences of all the students in the classroom, including the student with AD/HD and/or other learning differences; and the teacher’s perception and attitude towards the AD/HD student and the challenge of accommodating the student in the classroom.

1. Does the use of assistive technology devices incorporated into the course curriculum and lesson plans ease the burden and challenge of recognizing and meeting the needs of all learning styles and preferences in the classroom, including the student with AD/HD; making it possible for the teacher to meet the learning needs of all students?

2. Is there a significant relationship between the positive or negative nature of teacher perceptions and attitudes towards the student with AD/HD in the classroom to the frequency in which the teacher includes assistive technology devices in methods of instruction and general lessons plans in the classroom?

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Research Design

Ex post facto research is used in this study due to the self-selected levels of independent variables involved in teacher attitudes towards the AD/HD student, the number of covarying extraneous variables, and the uncontrollable and varied scope of the area of inquiry. The variables are not manipulated. This is a correlation study designed to identify the relationship between the classroom teacher, the use of technology, and the student with AD/HD. This study will lend itself to the generation of further theory and research into the cause and effect of these relationships. Diem (2002) states “An ex post facto study is used when experimental research is not possible, such as when people have self-selected levels of an independent variable or when a treatment is naturally occurring and the researcher could not control the degree of its use.” Diem cautions, “It is important to recognize that, in a relational study, “cause-and-effect” cannot be claimed but only that there is a relationship between the variables.” Variables that are completely unrelated could vary together due to nothing more than coincidence.

Newman and Newman (1994) maintain:

To assume a causal relationship, one must have internal validity (all other

explanations for the effect on the criterion [dependent variable] are

controlled for and the only possible explanation for changes in the

dependent variable must be due to the independent variable under

investigation). Only with true experimental design does one have the

experimental control to achieve internal validity. (p 114)

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When investigating causation, ex post facto research is inappropriate; however, if the research deals with relationships, ex post facto procedures are acceptable.

The study involved a large number of randomly selected participants. Keys points out the relationship between the subject selection and the external validity of the ex post facto study. Differential selection of the subjects determines how the findings can be generalized. Subjects selected from a small group or one with particular characteristics would limit generalizability. Randomly chosen subjects from the entire population could be generalized to the entire population. (Keys 1997) Also, the ability to generalize to the entire

population increases with the number of subjects or participants. The ability to generalize lends to the external validity of the research; the larger the field

of randomly selected subjects, the greater the ability to generalize findings to the entire population.
This study deals with the relationship between the classroom teacher, assistive technology devices incorporated in with the curriculum, and the AD/HD student; and will be used to establish theory and further research on the cause and effect of attitudes within these relationships.

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