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Wood and paper product manufacturers
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Wood and paper product manufacturersRelease estimates from the NPI database for the years 2001-2002 and 2002-2003 indicate the wood and paper manufacturing industry contributed the second highest proportion of point source emissions of formaldehyde from industrial facilities. The average emission rates were 8195 and 7061 kg/year for the 2001- 2002 and 2002-2003 reporting years, respectively, with a maximum of 51 844 kg/year (2002-2003 data) for an individual wood products activity (Table A7-2, Appendix 7). This is not surprising considering that one of the primary uses of formaldehyde is in the production of urea formaldehyde and phenol formaldehyde resins, which are used mainly as adhesives in the manufacture of particleboard, fibreboard, and plywood. Emissions of formaldehyde from the wood and paper industries are expected to occur mainly through fugitive and point source emissions of vapours from process and storage areas, and with some emissions of formaldehyde from combustion activities. The processes emitting vapours will differ with the type of industry, but may include gluing and veneering, steam heating, wood preservation treatment, and drying activities. Combustion sources include wood and paper drying, incinerating, and boiler operations. The calculated annual average PEC 100 m from a facility with average emission rates was 4.8 ppb and the maximum 24-hour average was 36 ppb. The highest estimated PECs from the largest emitter were 16 ppb (annual average) and 119 ppb (maximum 24-hour average) (see Appendix 6, A2.2 for details). A sensitivity analysis showed that the PECs are much more sensitive to the configuration of the source of the fugitive emissions than the stack emissions All of the wood and paper product industries in the NPI database are located outside major urban areas. To refine the estimates, further modelling of formaldehyde emissions from the highest emitter for wood and paper manufacturing industries was undertaken by EML Air Pty Ltd. EML included the typical facility layout, including configuration of the sources of formaldehyde emissions as inputs into the model. The revised estimates for the highest emitter of wood and paper facilities were 2 ppb (annual average PEC) and 37 ppb (maximum 24-hour average PEC) (see Appendix 17). CSIRO reviewed the EML Air Pty Ltd estimates and confirmed that the model had been correctly applied (see Appendix 18). Limited boundary data for ground formaldehyde levels around wood manufacturing plants were provided by AWPA and PAA. In total, 37 samples were collected around 5 plants between 1999 and 2005. No details on test methods were provided. About half the number of samples (18 out of 37) showed concentrations of formaldehyde < 10 ppb. Two samples of 66 ppb were measured around a plant that emits formaldehyde at ≥20 000 kg/year. There is no indication whether the plant is one of the largest formaldehyde emitters. Electricity supplyMost electricity generated in Australia is produced in steam cycle plants, with over 90% of plants using fossil fuel combustion to drive the steam turbines coupled to the electricity generators. Coal and natural gas are the main fossil fuel sources (ESAA, 1997). Thus, emissions of formaldehyde from the electrical supply industry result primarily from coincidental production during fuel combustion. Discharges are mainly into the air via stacks. In the NPI reporting years 2001-2002 and 2002-2003, the electrical supply industry reported total emissions of 177 303 and 163 918 kg/year of formaldehyde, respectively, with averages of 4792 and 3998 kg per facility. However, only a small proportion of the electrical supply companies in Australia actually reported emissions to the NPI. In 2001-2002, the majority (33 of 37) of companies reporting emissions were small isolated facilities operating throughout QLD and using diesel internal combustion to generate power. The range of emissions from these facilities varied between 0.92-70 kg/year. The remaining four facilities (3 in NSW, 1 in QLD) reported significantly higher emissions, between 29 012 and 85 614 kg/year, with two of these facilities generating power from coal seam methane. Emissions from combustion of coal-bed gas are likely to be high due to formation of formaldehyde by oxidation of methane. The calculated PECs are 0.11 ppb (annual average) and 1.12 ppb (maximum 24- hour average). For the largest emitter using different source configuration (see Appendix 6, A2.3 for details), similar PECs of 0.10 ppb (annual average) and 0.98 ppb (maximum 24-hour average) were produced. These PEC estimates are conservative because buoyant plume rise was ignored by setting the efflux temperature to 25ºC. Materials manufactureRelease estimates from NPI for the years 2001-2002 and 2002-2003 indicate that emissions vary widely with the type of material being manufactured (Table A7-3, Appendix 7). The average emission rates were 3664 and 2293 kg/year, respectively. Basic non-ferrous metal manufacturing contributed the highest emissions with the bulk of emissions from this category being discharged from alumina production facilities (maximum emission rate 35 000 kg/year, in 2001-2002). Emissions from alumina production facilities occur primarily through combustion of fossil fuels in furnaces and boilers during bauxite processing, vent emissions from bulk storage of hydrocarbons, and vapour emissions during certain stages of processing. The estimated PECs from modelling are 2.1 ppb (annual average) and 16 ppb (maximum 24-hour average). For the largest emitter (an aluminium refinery), PECs of 0.78 ppb (annual average) and 8.2 ppb (maximum 24-hour average) were calculated (see Appendix 6, A2.4 for details). Petroleum refining, oil and gas extractionRelease estimates from NPI for the years 2001-2002 and 2002-2003 indicate the petroleum refining, and oil and gas extraction industries contributed a total of 21 700 (1085 tonnes x 2%) and 51 000 kg (1022 tonnes x 5%) of point source emissions of formaldehyde (from 6 and 10 reporting facilities), respectively. Emissions ranged between about 5 and 8883 kg per year (average 3162 kg/year) in 2001-2002 and between 14 and 36 150 kg per year (average 5488 kg/year) in 2002-2003, with petroleum refining contributing the highest emissions. Emissions of formaldehyde from petroleum refining are expected to occur mainly through combustion activities during the refining process (catalytic cracking, fluid coking, blowdown systems, VDU condensers, sulfur recovery), and fugitive emissions from process and storage areas. For the average emitter, the estimated PECs of 0.07 ppb (annual average) and 0.74 ppb (maximum 24-hour average) are calculated. For the largest emitter (8883 kg/year), the estimated PECs are 0.20 ppb (annual average) and 2.1 ppb (maximum 24-hour average) (see Appendix 6, A2.5 for details). 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