Wow! a mile

at Portsmouth University

in development psychology, which involves studying the development of emotions, and the sense of self and sense of other, in the f1rst year of life.

He decided to investigate signs

of infant jealousy further, and analyzed the behavior of 24 babies, aged between four and six months: at least a year and a half

'

younger than the age modern psychologists believe youngsters are capable of complex emotions.

Ironically, back in the early 1900s several

leading authors reported mstances of jealousy within the first 8 months of life.

"It just shows how science progresses," Lorenz

told the Earth Times.

"St. Augustine noted this around the 4th century, and the Victorians underswod it quite clearly. Respected scientists like William james

and Mark Baldwin accepted it, and Charles Darwin

observed it in his l3 month-old son, and reported it in Diary of an Infant.

So, why was such writing ignored'

"It doesn't fit the paradigm."He shrugs. "So

science ignored it."

•
Lorenz comes from a family who reahze the values of risktaking research, and whose achievement forced science to sit up and take notice.

His grandfather was the Austrian Zoologist

Dr. Konrad Lorenz, (1903-1989), who shared

the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and was the founder and co director of the Comparative Ethology Department in the Max Planck Institute.

Ethology ts the study of animal behavior, especially its physiological, ecological, and evolutionary aspects. Dr. Lorenz is remembered for his discovery that auditory and visual stimuli from an animal's parents are needed to induce

the young to follow the adult, a phenomenon he

called "imprinting." Lorenz's controversial 1966 book Das sogenannle Bose (On Aggression) argued that aggressive impulses are basically innate, and drew analogies between humans and animals. He believed human fighting and warfare had genetic

^• _{origins in lower animal's actions, shown when}

defending territory.

At the same time that On Aggression was hitting the bookshelves, experts in human behavior began to accept that human infants are untouched by emotions, because they lack the necessary representational skills. Parents and pediatricians have long agreed that at

two months, babies hsten to, and attempt,

conversation. Between three and four months, infants become interested in games, and songs, even repeating body movements of adults.

They also start looking at their reflection in

mirrors, and make silly faces, encouraged by the smiles of appreciative adults, and because

'

their brains produce vast numbers of synapses, the connections from one nerve cell to another, through which information is passed.

However, it was thought that more complex

emotions, like jealousy, arrived long after their first footsteps. Riccardo Draghi Lorenz begged

to differ. In july he revealed to the International Society of Infant Studies Conference 2000 at Brighton, UK how mteractions between parents and infants of 2 to ll months were videotaped, and as part of a related study, then mothers' reports examl ned.

Most participants said they first noticed jealousy at about 7-9 months, and a few as early as 4-5 months, but long before their infants' first buthdays, all volunteers had reported several

convincing instances of jealousy. Lorenz's methods were straightforward. Moms were encouraged to talk with other adults, and then kiss and cuddle another baby, while their own chtld's reaction was measured .

"When mothers were talking to adults, three

out of the 24 babies became distressed and started to cry. But when the mothers showed love to another baby, 13 out of 24 babies cried, leaving their mothers feeling quite guilty. All but one of the other ll babies showed some level of jealous reaction," Lorenz explained.

He admitted to the Earth Times that not all physiologists at the conference agreed with his findings, and suggests that it may be another decade before such research is widely accepted. Lorenz believes that sctence is often about walking on less traveled pathways.

"If you don't do that, then why are you involved

in research?''

Development of Food Acceptance Patterns in Early

^• _Childhood

by H.A. Guthrie PhD, Rd

Role of Genetic Factors

Reaction to Flavors

Research at the Monell Chemical Senses Center

has shown that newborns have a positive response, as measured by facial expressions, to sweet flavors and a negative response to sour and bitter flavors; responses that may be modified by subsequent learning. The response to salty stimuli is delayed until about four months, at which time infants

react positively. Mennella and Beauchamp

•
have also demonstrated that flavors such as chocolate, vanilla, and alcohol in the mother's diet, reflected in the flavor of her milk, influence the sucking reflex and total breast milk intake. It is hypothesized, but as yet not tested, that these infants who have had this early flavor experience are more likely to accept the same or similar flavors in foods. They may also be more receptive to variety in flavors as other foods are introduced later. Formula-fed infants for whom there is little

or no flavor variation from one feeding to the next do not have the sa me early experience of such a range of flavors.
Neophobia

In general, young infants have a genetically-related predisposition to reject new foods. This reaction is known as neophobia-fear of new. A caregiver may find this rejection inconvenient and/or interpret

it as a dislike for the food offered and label the infant as a "fussy eater". In reality this response is entirely normal and adaptive serving to protect the child should it be offered a food which, if ingested,

•

might lead to adverse consequences mcluding gastrointesnnal upset, nausea, or even toxicity. Thus, an adult should not expect a child to accept a new food immediately unless it is sweet or salty. Instead, the caregiver should persist in offering

the food repeatedly at mtervals and anticipate that

the child will accept it when it recognizes that the food is not associated with any unpleasant consequences. This changed behavior sometimes referred to as "condinoned preference" or "learned safety" may also reflect pleasant outcomes such

as satiety or absence of hunger. The change is

often quite dramatic but it may reqmre three or four or as many as ten offerings before it occurs. Once an infant has accepted a particular food

(e.g. bananas), its acceptance of similar foods (e.g.




other fruits such as peaches or pears) is enhanced. The intake of other foods such as vegetables will require the usual number of trials for acceptance. Parents should recognize that in order to overcome neophobia the infant must consume the food, not

merely taste or smell it. Since omnivores need variety in their diets in order to promote adequate nutrient intake, it is important that parents persist in their efforts to Leach their children to accept a wide variety of flavors and textures from an early age.
Environmental Factors

_• <sup>Positive context

Research has confirmed that feeding an infant or</sup>

young child ln a positive environmental context, free of distractions such as noise, activity, or loss of the mother's attention is more likely to result in food acceptance than when it is offered in a

_{negative or distracting environment. Acceptance}

is also more likely when the child is comfortable and hungry, but not ravenously so. Children as they experience new eating opportunities learn to

associate foods with the context and consequences of eanng. Although they do not need to learn to accept sweet and salty foods, their acceptance

of other foods is strongly influenced by their

experiences, both positive and negative, at the time they ftrst ingest a particular food. It usually takes only one negative association to establish a "learned food aversion" but many more to establish a "learned preference". For older children, coercion to eat a food with either a food or non-food reward frequently has the effect of a negative rather than a positive context.

Now answer numbers 10 through 18. Base your answers on the articles "New Studies Suggest Babies

Have 'Feelings' Too" and "Development of Food Acceptance Patterns in Early Childhood."

10. Which sentence best summarizes the two articles?

F. Infants develop strong food preferences and display complex emotions at an early age. G. Psychologists believe that infants are capable of liule emotwn besides expressing pain.

H. Infants are passive and accept anything they are given as long as they are rested and well-fed.

I. Parents are primarily responsible for infants' ability to accept new foods or display emotions.

11. Which of the following sentences gives an example of the reaction known as neophobia?
A. Infants have a natural instinct to fear sweet and bitter flavors.

B. Infants accept a new food when they are given only that food.

C. Infants enjoy foods that are similar to a food they recently learned to like.

D. Infants refuse a new food because of a naLUral instinct to protect themselves.

12. Read this excerpt from the article "New Studies Suggest Babies Have 'Feelings' Too." "So why was such writing ignored?

'It doesn't fit the paradigm.' He shrugs. 'So science ignored it.'"

Which is the best restatement of this excerpt'

F. The writings were old and outdated, so scientists could not rely on it.

G. The proof was based on eyewitness reports, so scientists did not believe it.

H. The evidence was contrary to the accepted theory, so scientists paid it no attention.

I. The observations were not made in offtcial experiments, so scientists d1d not trust them.

13. Which of the following sentences give an example of imprintmg' A. A bear cub refuses to eat the food its mother provides.

B. An infant is born with the strong instinct to protect itself.

C. A lion cub finds its way to its mother when it hears her roar.

_{D. A baby becomes jealous when h1s mother plays with another child.}

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