Geography-Chapter 12-Southern Europe ystems and human systems shape a place? Geography Matters

Geographically, Europe is a continent made up of peninsulas. The southern part of the region includes three major peninsulas: the Iberian Peninsula, the Italian Peninsula, and the Balkan Peninsula.

Extending off southwestern Europe, the Iberian Peninsula is the location of Spain and Portugal. This landmass separates the Atlantic Ocean from the Mediterranean Sea, leaving only the 20-mile-(32-km-) wide Strait of Gibraltar to connect them. Coastal plains give way to the Meseta, a large plateau that makes up most of the interior of the peninsula. To the north, the Iberian Peninsula is separated from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees, mountains that have isolated the peninsula’s residents for centuries. The independent principality of Andorra is located high in the Pyrenees between modern-day Spain and France. Andorra owes its political autonomy to its isolated location in the mountains.

The most southwestern of Europe’s mountain ranges, the Pyrenees stretch from the Bay of Biscay on the Atlantic side of Spain to the Mediterranean Sea. At its widest the Pyrenees range is a daunting 80 miles (128 km) across. The Pyrenees are characterized by flat-topped massifs—a body of mountain ranges formed by fault-line activity. The forces of plate tectonics are responsible for the rise of these massifs, and earthquakes occur as the mountains are built up.

Italy occupies the Italian Peninsula, which extends from the south of Europe into the heart of the Mediterranean Sea. Plains cover only about one-third of the Italian Peninsula. The largest is the plain of Lombardy along the Po River in the north. The coastline of Italy varies from high, rocky cliffs to long, sandy beaches, and has several well-sheltered ports to support trade. The Apennine Mountains run down the spine of the peninsula all the way through the center of the large island of Sicily off the southwestern tip of Italy. The range is about 1,245 miles (2,000 km) long.

To the north of the Italian Peninsula lie the majestic Alps, the most recognizable range of mountains on the European continent. They loom over Southern Europe and form a natural barrier between the Italian Peninsula and Northern Europe. Because the Alps are the highest mountain range in Europe, they are also the source of Europe’s largest and most important rivers. These rivers flow north into France and Germany or south where they empty into the Mediterranean, Adriatic, and Black Seas.

In southeastern Europe, the Balkan Peninsula is bounded by the Adriatic and Ionian Seas to the west and the Aegean and Black Seas to the east. Greece is the southernmost country on the Balkan Peninsula. The numerous mountains on this peninsula have limited the area’s potential for communication and development. However, this has been offset by the region’s easy access to the sea. Greece is known for the large numbers of islands—nearly 2,000—that spread out from its coastline in the Aegean Sea.

The islands that lie south of the mainland of the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan Peninsulas are geographically and politically important to Spain, Italy, and Greece. They serve as trading posts in the Mediterranean. Rugged mountains form the larger islands of Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Crete, and Cyprus. Tectonic activity is characteristic of this region. Sicily, the largest of these islands, is dominated by Mount Etna. At 10,700 feet (3,261 m), Mount Etna is Europe’s tallest active volcano. Smaller island groups include Spain’s Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, Italy’s Lipari Islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea, and the three islands of Malta in the Mediterranean.

The two major rivers on the Iberian Peninsula are the Tagus and the Ebro. Both rivers play crucial roles in the economy and ecology of the region. However, their roles are limited because they, like all rivers on the Iberian Peninsula, are generally too shallow for large ships.

The Tagus River begins near the eastern edge of Spain and travels westward for 626 miles (1,007 km) through Portugal to the Atlantic Ocean. In northern Spain, nearly 200 tributaries, mostly from the rainy Pyrenees, feed the Ebro River, Spain’s longest river. The steep gorges and rocky terrain that this river flows through make it inaccessible to boats. However, the Ebro has been dammed to provide a significant portion of Spain’s hydroelectric power. In addition, the resulting reservoirs provide water to an impressive network of irrigation canals Analyzing that support the agriculture of Spain.

The Apennines form a mountain range that runs down the center of the long and narrow Italian Peninsula. This has created rivers that are steep, short, and relatively narrow and shallow, and not suitable for transportation by boat. In the north, however, the Po River runs through the plain of Lombardy. Although it is Italy’s longest and most significant river, it is still only 405 miles (652 km) long.

Venice is located at the mouth of the Po on the Adriatic Sea. The city has built a complicated system of dikes and canals to help control the river’s outflow. Efforts to claim marshy areas of the Po Delta for small farms failed due to floods, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. Nevertheless, the drainage basin of the Po River forms Italy’s largest and most fertile agricultural plain, covering 27,062 square miles (70,091 sq. km).

The Tiber River is Italy’s second-longest river and has great historical significance. A mere 252 miles (405 km) long, this short river is nevertheless very important to Italy’s economic history. It is the primary water source for the capital, Rome. Civitavecchia, on the lower part of the river, is a significant port and naval harbor for Rome. The Tiber River empties into the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Greece, on the southern tip of the Balkan Peninsula, has a mountainous terrain. Its rivers are short, unsuitable for navigation, and unusable for irrigation. In their upper courses, near their sources, the rivers flow in broad, gently sloping valleys. However, in their middle courses they plunge through basins into narrow gorges. In their lower courses, as they near their mouths, they meander across coastal plains into marshy deltas. Northeastern Greece is home to the Maritsa River, located in a low valley full of marshes. The Maritsa marks Greece’s border with Turkey. In northeastern Greece, the two main rivers are the Vardar and the Aliákmon.

Glacial movement in the last ice age did not reach Southern Europe’s peninsulas. As a result, the landforms of these countries lack the natural lakes or reservoirs found in Northern Europe and Northwestern Europe. The climate of Southern Europe is also much drier than farther north, another reason why there are fewer rivers and lakes in this subregion.

Southern Europe’s location on the Mediterranean Sea influences the climate and biomes of the subregion. The climate also makes the subregion a popular vacation destination. The subregion is particularly suited for growing grapes, olives, and shrub herbs and raising goats and other livestock.

The Alps separate two major climate zones: the marine west coast climate to the north and the warm Mediterranean climate of Italy and the Balkans to the south. The Alps block most Atlantic winds from the north, causing less precipitation to fall in Southern Europe. Generally, Southern Europe experiences the warm, dry summers and the mild, rainy winters characteristic of the Mediterranean climate.

The Mediterranean climate of Southern Europe results, in part, from the warm waters of this sea. Average yearly rainfall across Southern Europe is less than 30 inches (76 cm), and most of the yearly rainfall occurs in the winter months. The plants and animals native to the subregion are well-suited for less water and the long summer dry period. The coastal areas are covered in chaparral, or shrubs and shrub trees that are drought resistant. Most agriculture in Southern Europe takes place on coastal plains that receive more rainfall and develop a thicker topsoil as a result of runoff and sediment left by rivers.

The ecosystems in the Mediterranean are diverse and ecologically sensitive to climate change. Gorges channel water away from the land, leaving much of the region warm, dry, and covered in scrub plants. The coastal plains have rich sedimentary soil and a high diversity of plant life, and support most of the regional agriculture. However, they are prone to flooding.

Italy has few mineral resources. Portugal, however, has large deposits of copper. Northern Spain, along the Pyrenees and the Atlantic Ocean, is rich in coal, tin, and tungsten. Tungsten is an extremely rare heavy-metal element which is essential in high-tech industries. Spain’s mining operations in search of this valuable natural element are unlikely to be reduced.

Both Italy and Spain have benefited from the production of hydroelectricity. Greece has many rivers suitable for producing hydroelectricity. However, Greece has not fully developed these resources.

Describing Describe the ecosystem of the Mediterranean climate.

LESSON 2-Human Geography of Southern Europe ESSENTIAL QUESTION • How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?
The European countries in the region of the Mediterranean Sea have a rich cultural heritage. Greece was the birthplace of classical civilization, the Roman Empire was born in Italy, and Spain and Portugal became leaders in the Age of Exploration. Today the region is highly developed and plays an important role in geopolitics and the world economy and as a cultural center. History and Government What characteristics of early civilizations are evident in Southern Europe today? Evidence of the cultural inheritance of Southern Europe is visible in the ruins of ancient civic architecture, such as the Parthenon. Those majestic ruins are a reminder of the lasting impact that civilizations have had on this region and around the world. The civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome laid the foundations for European—and Western—civilization. Early History Ancient Greece was a collection of city-states, each independent with its own form of government and society. They were linked only by their common language and shared cultural identity. The classical period of Greek history reached its height in the 400s B.C. The city-state of Athens introduced the concept of democracy to the world. The city-state of Sparta was built on the glory of war. Sparta’s generals created battle strategies that are still studied and used today. The mythology of the Greeks and Romans has influenced and inspired the art and culture of Western civilization for over 2,000 years. The Roman Republic, founded in Italy, was established on the rule of law and the balance of power. It was the foundation of the largest empire of the ancient world. The empire reached the height of its power in 27 B.C and experienced a resurgence around 200 years later, in A.D. 180. The Path to Today The period that followed the fall of the Roman Empire in the West is known as the Middle Ages. Beginning in Italy in the 1300s, a new era called the Renaissance (from the French word for “rebirth”) signaled a major cultural revival. Much of Europe experienced a renewed interest in the arts, politics, science, and philosophy. This blossoming was possible because of the level of wealth and stability that the Italian city-states achieved. Wealth and stability made it possible for people to devote themselves to study and innovative thought. They could also afford to be patrons for artists, writers, and thinkers. This cultural revival eventually spread across Europe and was later carried by explorers to other regions of the world. At the beginning of the Renaissance, Europe was lagging behind the Chinese and Islamic empires in innovation and enterprise. However, by the 1400s Southern Europe, led by Portugal and Spain, was exploring new opportunities beyond the Mediterranean. By the early 1500s, both countries had established footholds in the Americas where they would build empires. Portugal also established colonies in India. New trade routes and colonization created enormous wealth. The 1800s and 1900s brought dramatic changes to all of Europe. In the Mediterranean, small kingdoms, principalities, and city-states that shared a linguistic and cultural identity began to unify under the concept known as nationalism. Others pushed for independence from older multiethnic regimes. As a result, the modern countries of Southern Europe emerged. The road to political stability in Southern Europe was not easy due to the history of invasions from North Africa, Asia, and other parts of Europe. Today, Southern European countries have democratically elected governments. Portugal, Spain, Italy, and Greece are members of the European Union (EU). The subregion was mainly agricultural until the 1980s when industrialization arrived. Economic issues have been a problem in recent decades, however. Spain, Italy, and Greece have experienced high unemployment rates, face credit problems, and are undergoing the transition to an industrial and, more recently, a service economy. Making Connections What was the impact of nationalism on the development of modern Southern Europe? Population Patterns How have migration and aging populations affected Southern Europe’s population patterns? Europe is one of the most densely populated regions of the world. It is a relatively small region with a large population, which is mostly urbanized. Opportunities for education, employment, and social services during the past 50 years have been greater in urban areas. Vatican City, just 0.17 square miles (0.44 sq. km) in area, is the most densely populated state in Southern Europe. In contrast, Greece has about 222 people per square mile (86 people per sq. km). It is still the most agrarian (based on farming) and rural of all Southern European countries. As in most European countries, the populations of Italy, Spain, and Greece are aging. The birthrates are not high enough to replace the current generation. In the coming decades there will be a greater number of older people than young people. As older people die, the population will decline. General political and economic stability in the last 50 years has meant an increase in the quality of life and the alternatives open to individuals. One result is an increase in income. A consequence of the increase is smaller families. Many people are choosing not to have children since the economic cost of raising a child is great. Another reason is the full inclusion of women into society. Women are postponing having children to pursue careers and, as a consequence, are having fewer children. The care of the aging is another issue in Southern Europe. Traditionally, younger generations cared for older family members. This practice is declining in Europe where older people do not have adult children to care for them. The aging population is beginning to strain the social welfare systems of countries, and governments must often provide the costs of caring for an older society. Demands for necessary labor are being met by migrants within the European Union. Newly admitted EU countries in Eastern Europe have larger proportions of their populations living in rural areas. They are attracted to work in urban centers throughout the EU for wages. Often they are unskilled, but have a strong work ethic and make good employees. Economic migration throughout the EU has resulted in a growing diversity of cultures and ethnic groups. The largest cities in Southern Europe are economic and cultural hubs founded on ancient trade routes. Within the city of Rome, the modern capital of Italy, is Vatican City. It is an independent country that is home to the Roman Catholic Church. Vatican City was formally established as an independent city-state in 1929. This country is unique in its purpose because it relies on a complementarity, or an interdependence, with Rome for its goods and services. Greece has its modern capital in the ancient city of Athens. Spain’s major cities, such as Madrid and Barcelona, were once the capitals of kingdoms. Today regions of Spain maintain separate cultural, and even linguistic, identities. Andalusia and the Basque regions have greater autonomy since their ethnic backgrounds are different from the rest of Spain. The importance of trade is apparent with Portugal, since its capital, Lisbon, is also its largest port. Summarizing What factors are resulting in a decreasing population in the region? Society and Culture Today How have religion, the arts, and Southern Europe’s rich intellectual traditions shaped society and culture today? Southern Europe is culturally dominated by two legacies. The first is its location as a geographic crossroad for the cultures surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. The second is the historic events that occurred as a place where civil societies first formed representative governments elected by the people. As a result of empires and territorial control, the countries share roots in language, religion, and the arts. The people of Italy, Spain, and Portugal all speak Romance languages that evolved from Latin, the language of the Romans. Many inhabitants of these countries are also heavily influenced by the Roman Catholic Church. Throughout the region, literacy is very high (about 95 percent). The high literacy rate reflects the strong government support of education. Education is compulsory for all children, and university education is increasingly common. Southern European governments have developed as providers of health care and other social welfare services that are funded by taxes. Spain and Italy have well-established universal health care systems that cover the basic health care needs of the people. Spain has more doctors per person than many other countries in Europe. Greece is more rural and has faced greater challenges in meeting the needs of health care among a less dense, more geographically distributed population. Family and Status of Women Italian women have achieved a high level of gender equality. They enjoy access to higher education and success in business. However, integration of women into Italian politics suffers from a long period of male dominance and poor attitudes toward the contributions of qualified women. Like Italy, Greece and Spain have a family-centered culture. In Greece, the family is the primary social support. Despite the rise of a large middle class since World War II, it is still common for members of extended families to live together. In the 1980s, laws were enacted that changed traditional family life but also created more freedoms. Spain enjoys similar social structures to Italy and Greece with smaller families and gender equality in higher education and business. he Arts The ancient Greeks and Romans developed many important and basic elements of architecture, including columns, arches, and domes. The classical architectural style of these two cultures remains popular to this day, especially in civic buildings. The ancient Greeks valued a type of idealized realism in sculpture; the human figure is portrayed accurately, or perfectly, in Greek art. The Romans embraced Greek realism and carried it further, depicting people much as they really were. The Renaissance saw a revival of the classical style and its subjects in the arts. Artwork during the Renaissance also reflected a trend towards realism through new techniques such as perspective. Italian Renaissance artists, such as Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) and Michelangelo (1475–1564), created many of the era’s masterpieces. Spain has given the world some of the best examples of modern art. Artists in this genre include Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) and architect Antoni Gaudí (1852–1926). Salvador Dalí (1904–1989) led the surrealist movement. Surrealist works and ideas changed the definition of art in the twentieth century. Identifying Describe the major contributions of the Romans and Greeks to the arts. Economic Activities What are the characteristics of Southern Europe’s economy today? The global economic downturn at the beginning of the twenty-first century had a major impact on the subregion. Greece’s fragile economy, based on small, family-owned businesses and agriculture, collapsed under a real-estate crash caused largely by a lack of regulation. In 2012 the general unemployment rate topped 25 percent, but youth unemployment was over 50 percent. Recovery was supported by other EU countries. Resources, Power, and Industry For all Southern European countries, access to the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean has been essential to economic development and stability. Like many developed countries, Southern European countries have seen steady decreases in their manufacturing sectors in the last 30 years. Instead, the service sectors have become more important, with an increase in industries such as banking, retail and wholesale sales, tourism, health care, and telecommunications. The countries in this subregion have relied on their warm, attractive climate, proximity to the sea, and rich food culture to attract tourists. Tourism is a major part of the service sector of the economy. Since the 1990s, Spain’s economy has grown as a result of lower costs of operating factories and a large supply of workers. Membership in the EU provided a market for Spanish products. Although it was severely affected by the global recession, Spain has continued its important economic role in the region. Italy went through an industrial reconstruction after World War II. Areas along the Po River valley became the leading industrial region of the country. The EU opened other countries for the import of Italian Fiat cars and trucks, clothing, and home furnishings. Today Italy continues to thrive on high-tech engineering and metallurgical manufacturing. Certain portions of Italy’s agricultural market play an important part in the export market, namely olive oil and wine. Greece’s economy is one of the least developed in Southern Europe. Natural resources are limited and industrialization has been slow to develop. A large sector of the economy is tourism. EU membership has been beneficial to agriculture and industrialization, since EU investments and subsidies compensate for low productivity. Today Greece faces major challenges to reduce its public spending. Generous social programs, tax evasion, and persistently high unemployment continue to be issues facing Greece. Southern Europe faces many challenges in meeting its energy needs. The EU in general is the world’s largest energy importer and is focusing more on natural gas due to its plans to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. While regional resources are limited, just south across the Mediterranean are rich oil- and natural gas-producing countries in North Africa. Pipelines on the seafloor deliver important energy supplies. Future Prospects Prior to 2009, membership in the EU was good for countries’ economies. Member countries were doing well, and trade among them was growing annually. Easier migration within the EU across the borders between countries was filling the labor shortage. Living standards increased steadily. In the twenty-first century the EU faces its first great test of economic stability within the subregion. The Southern European members are dealing with economic issues such as too much national debt, too high unemployment, and too much governmental spending. Those problems have stretched resources and goodwill very thin across all of Europe. Tensions have grown as the EU has provided special assistance to the Southern European members through loans and subsidies. Summarizing Why is the Greek economy one of the least developed in Southern Europe? LESSON 3-People and Their Environment: Southern Europe ESSENTIAL QUESTION • How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?   The Mediterranean Sea is essential to the culture and economy of Southern Europe. The human population growth of the region is slowing after 100 years of rapid expansion. Maintaining the balance between human needs and the environment is often challenging with such a large population. Managing Resources What are the threats that require closer management of resources in Southern Europe? Southern Europe’s landscape is full of natural wonders—beautiful rivers, seas, and forests. Across most of the region, the climate is suitable for outdoor activity year-round, encouraging tourists and residents to spend a good deal of time exploring the outdoors. Human settlement has greatly increased over the last few decades, which has resulted in a number of concerns for the area’s resources and environment. One major environmental concern in the region is the presence of large algae blooms in the Adriatic Sea. This sea forms a smaller part of the Mediterranean Sea between Italy and Greece. The algae blooms are evidence of the effects of human activity on delicate marine biomes. These visible clusters of organisms appear when there is an imbalance in the ecological structure. Warmer water, chemical fertilizer runoff from agriculture, and human settlements are all possible causes for an algae bloom. The bloom is potentially harmful because it can use up the dissolved oxygen in the water, killing fish and other marine life. Toxins produced by particularly harmful algae blooms can kill marine life and humans who consume affected marine life. The Mediterranean climate is known for its long, dry summers and wet, mild winters. However, changes in the global climate have made summers unpredictable. Some summers turn into droughts and others produce unseasonable rain. Both scenarios can result in excessive soil erosion. Loss of topsoil and soil erosion can threaten the natural balance of an ecosystem by removing potential footholds for vegetation. When bare rock is exposed, the land becomes vulnerable to other environmental threats, such as fire or desertification. When there is no plant life to hold dry soil to steep hillsides, rain can wash away already thin topsoil on the rocky terrain of much of the subregion. Too much rain can also promote the growth of vegetation that can become fuel for a fire. Dry season fires are a natural part of Mediterranean climate ecosystems. They are necessary to maintain the native vegetation. However, fire is a contributing factor in the deforestation of human-modified areas. Climate change is also a significant contributing factor to deforestation. The Mediterranean region is experiencing longer and hotter summers with less humidity and more wind. Both low humidity and more wind provide conditions that increase the incidence of forest fires. Higher altitude areas are also affected by climate change. Parts of the Pyrenees and the Alps that normally experience sufficient snowfall and cold temperatures to maintain glaciers and forests of coniferous trees are changing. The glaciers are shrinking, while the forests are being attacked by beetles and other insects that flourish in the warmer temperatures. Awareness of these effects of climate change is needed to protect the environments that support life in the Mediterranean areas. Making Connections How is climate change related to soil erosion in Southern Europe? Human Impact What are the environmental concerns regarding tourism in Southern Europe? Southern Europe is well known for its food culture. In the coastal areas, this means fish and other seafood are common in the local diets. As a result, overfishing has occurred. Fish stocks are not being replenished as quickly as they are being depleted. As the fish stocks have declined, the overall health of the marine biome has declined as well. Two sectors of the economy in Southern Europe that have seen tremendous growth in the last 50 years are industrial manufacturing and tourism. Industrial pollution is a major threat to the surrounding seas and to the quality of water and agricultural resources. Development associated with tourism causes major damage to coastal ecosystems, loss of natural habitat, overuse of freshwater resources, as well as pollution and waste. Tourism inundates regions that are normally sparsely populated with huge numbers of people. More people make a greater impact on the local environment. Waste management issues are the primary concern. One popular form of vacationing is via cruise ship. Oil spills and oil pollutants from ships of all kinds are a growing concern in the subregion. Pollutants and other human impacts in the water systems have given rise to pollution hot spots in the Mediterranean Sea. These hot spots are locations where such impacts have led to the degradation, and even the death, of the local ecosystem. These spots do not support marine life. The water is warmer and more vulnerable to the development of algae and other microorganisms, some of which are harmful to humans. Summarizing How are manufacturing and tourism affecting the environment? Addressing the Issues How are groups, governments, and others addressing environmental issues in Southern Europe? As early as 1975, European countries in the Mediterranean region recognized that rapid population expansion, industrialization, and a general increase in human activity were threatening the region’s natural beauty and resources. The Mediterranean Action Plan was created at that time to help plan a way to curb damage to the environment. Each participating country set goals for reducing its environmental impact on the region, and governments in the region have been diligent in addressing the issues. Legislation has been enacted in all participating countries to try to regulate the effects of industrialization and population growth. In 1990 the European Union (EU) created the European Environmental Agency. Its purpose is to help evaluate threats to the region and create plans to effectively deal with environmental issues. This agency makes independent reports to the European Union, which can then work with member countries to enact action plans to address environmental concerns. Many nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are dedicated to addressing issues that affect the region and that may have a lasting impact on the welfare of the global environment. These include the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Earthwatch, and the Nature Conservancy. These organizations work to solve the problems, including industrial pollution, algae blooms, and soil erosion, which are prominent in Southern Europe. There are many ways for individuals to get involved with organizations that protect the regions of the world that are essential to a region’s cultural and natural heritage. Deforestation is also a growing concern in Europe. The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), an international NGO, is leading a grassroots campaign in Europe to reforest or protect forest biomes. Specifically, they are working to reduce soil erosion and the risk of forest fires and fighting causes of global warming. Certification is one way to ensure that forest resources are being used responsibly. When resource extractors obtain certification, consumers can be assured that they support products and services that avoid exploiting forest resources. A public awareness campaign has helped to some extent, although it is hard to measure by how much. Teaching the public about these issues helps people make decisions that support responsible stewardship of the environment. Identifying What is the role of the European Environmental Agency?