Rd October 2010 [a] Contents
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- [b] Preserving biodiversity and culture
- [b] Strategic Direction
[!box!]Box 1: HIV/AIDS HIV/AIDS is the fourth biggest cause of mortality in the world (WHO, 2002). Although protected areas can contribute to the HIV/AIDS problem through choices made about staff deployment (see above), managers may also be able to make a positive contribution. Specifically: Conservation organisations and their local partners often work to improve communication and transportation infrastructures and resources in areas where they work. This can also help the work of local health and development organisations working on HIV/AIDS issues, and can be particularly significant in remote areas. NGOs and protected area staff should have well-established contacts with local communities and organisations that can facilitate the work of health initiatives. Protected area agencies are increasingly running staff training programmes and extension work about the dangers of AIDS and about preventative measures. In areas where HIV/AIDS is a substantial risk it is important for conservation organisations to assess organisational vulnerability in terms of staff, financial resources and management systems and to develop and implement workplace policies. Some guidance exists, for example the Guidelines for Mitigating the Impacts of HIV/AIDS on Coastal Biodiversity and Natural Resource Management developed by the Population Reference Bureau (Torell et al, 2007). At park level, for example, a vulnerability assessment carried out in Ankarafantsika National Park in Madagascar has been incorporated into the management strategy of the park. The park also has a trained officer as the HIV/AIDS Focal Point, who implements and co-ordinates related activities including: informing staff on HIV/AIDS; distributing free condoms to staff, in visitors’ centre and in each field station; and holding HIV/AIDS information events in villages and hamlets around the park (Lopez at al, 2005). [!box ends!] [b] Conclusions Making the link between environment and health has not happened overnight. In 1986, an international conference sponsored by WHO highlighted the need to bring the health and environment agendas together in way that went beyond the normal responsibilities of countries’ traditional health sectors. But such changes of policy take time. Although many protected areas across the world have been set up with the dual aims of conservation and recreation, few have specific health mandates. There are some exceptions and the examples given here show that policy agendas linking health and conservation can provide real benefits for both sectors. There is also a growing recognition of these links by some conservation NGOs. Conservation projects often partner with communities living in remote areas with high biodiversity in the developing world. Although conservation is the primary aim, it makes sense to link with, and sometimes work directly on, other development issues such as healthcare. These PHE (population-health-environment) projects integrate health and poverty reduction strategies with conservation activities (see case study on Kenya in section chapter on poverty reduction), seeking synergies to produce greater conservation and human wellbeing results than if they were implemented in isolated single-sector approaches (Oglethorpe et al, 2008). These positive links, which are beginning to be recognised in the scientific literature and environmental and health policy around the world, continue to be undermined by habitat destruction and loss. Protected areas offer one of the most permanent and effective strategies for linking these two issues in practice and for the long term. [b] Notes 1. We recognise that the field of medical treatments is one where there is often enormous controversy and that the fact something is used as a medicine does not necessarily mean that it is effective (Goldacre, 2008). Analysis of the thousands of traditional, mainstream, alternative and complementary health products derived from nature is beyond the scope of this chapter. 2. An infectious disease whose incidence has increased in the past 20 years and threatens to increase in the near future. [b] References Acebey, L., Apaza, A., de Michel, R., Beck, S., Jullian, V., Ruiz, G., Gimenez, A., Chevalley, S. and Sauvain, M. (2007) The living library of The Cotapata National Park in Bolivia: an example of application of Bolivian law on the access to genetic resources, Biodiversity and Conservation, 17:8 Anon (2006) Forestry and malaria control in Italy, Unasylva, 57:224 Beattie, A. J. (2003) New Products and Industries from Biodiversity, in R Hassan, R Scholes and N Ash (Eds), Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends. Findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group, Island Press Bird, W. (2004) Natural Fit: Can Green Space and Biodiversity Increase Levels of Physical Activity?, RSPB and The Faculty of Public Health, UK Carraz ,M., A. Jossang, J. F. Franetich, Siau A., Liliane, C., Hannoun, L., Sauerwein, R., Frappier, F., Rasoanaivo, P., Snounou, G. and Mazier, D. (2006) A plant-derived morphinan as a novel lead compound active against malaria liver stages. PLoS Med 3:12 CBD (1992) Convention on Biological Diversity, www.biodiv.org CBD (2002) Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, CBD Secretariat, Montreal Chivian, E. and Bernstein, A. (2008) Sustaining life: How human health depends on biodiversity, Oxford University Press, New York Colfer, C. J., Sheil, D., Kaimowitz, D. and Kish, M. (2006a) Forests and human health in the tropics: some important connections, Unasylva, 57:224 Colfer, C. J., Sheil, D. and Kishi, M. (2006b) Forests and human health: assessing the evidence, CIFOR Occasional Paper; No. 45, Center for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia Columbia University, School of International and Public Affairs (1999); Access to Genetic Resources: An Evaluation of the Development and Implementation of Recent Regulation and Access Agreements, Environmental Policy Studies Working Paper #4, The Tides Center – Biodiversity Action Network, Washington Cunningham, A. B. (1993) African Medicinal Plants: Setting Priorities at the Interface between Conservation and Primary Healthcare. People and Plants Working Paper 1. UNESCO, Paris Cunningham, A. B. (2009); Medicinal Plants and Panda Landscapes in China, in Stolton, S. and Dudley, N. (2009); Vital Sites: The contribution of protected areas to human health, WWF International, Gland, Switzerland Farnsworth, N R and D D Soejarto (1988) Global Importance of Medicinal Plants, Proceedings of an International Consultation, Chiang Mai, Thailand, Cambridge University Press Goldacre, B. (2008) Bad Science, Fourth Estate, London Gustafson, K. R., Munro, M. H. G., Blunt, B. W., Cardellina II, J. H., McMahon, J. B., Gulakowski, R . J., Cragg, G. M., Cox, P. A., Brinen, L. S., Clardy, J. and Boyd, M. R. (1991); HIV inhibitory natural products. 3. Diterpenes from Homalanthus acuminatus and Chrysobalanus icaco. Tetrahedron 47:4547-4554 Grifo, F., Newman, D., Fairfield, A. S., Bhattacharya, B. and Grupenhoff, J. T. (1997) The Origins of Prescription Drugs, in Grifo, F. and Rosenthal, J. (eds.) Biodiversity and Human Health, Island Press, Washington, D.C. Hamilton, A. (2005) Resource assessment for sustainable harvesting of medicinal plants, paper presented at a side-event at the International Botanical Congress (Vienna) on Source to Shelf: Sustainable Supply Chain Management of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, organized (21-22 July 2005) Hamilton, A., Dürbeck, K. and Lawrence, A. (2006) Towards a Sustainable Herbal Harvest: A Work in Hand, Plant Talk, 43: January 2006 Hayden, C. (2005) Can pharmaceutical research give back?, ReVista: Harvard Review of Latin America, Winter 2005 Hockings, M., Stolton, S., Dudley, N., James, R., Mathur, V., Courrau, J., Makombo,J. and Parrish, J. (2008) Enhancing our Heritage Toolkit Assessing management effectiveness of natural World Heritage sites, UNESCO, Paris INBio, www.inbio.ac.cr/en/default.html, accessed 1st August 2009 Kalema-Zikusoka, G. (2003) Protected Areas, Human Livelihoods and Healthy Animals: Ideas for Improvements in Conservation and Development Interventions, Southern and East African Experts Panel on Designing Successful Conservation and Development Interventions at the Wildlife/Livestock Interface: Implications for Wildlife, Livestock, and Human Health, AHEAD Forum, September 14–15, 2003, Durban, South Africa Laird, S., Johnston, S., Wynberg, R. Lisinge, E. and Lohan, D. (2003) Biodiversity Access and Benefit Sharing Policies for Protected Areas: An Introduction, United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies, Japan Lebarbenchon, C., Poulin, R., Gauthier-Clerc, M. and Frédéric, T. (2006) Parasitological Consequences of Overcrowding in Protected Areas, EcoHealth, 3: 4 Le Bas, B. and Hall, J. (2008) Conservation therapy – hands-on examples from National Nature Reserves, Ecos, 29:2 Liou, C. and Wasser, R. ( Eds.) (2008) The State of Wildlife Trade in China, TRAFFIC East Asia China Programme Lopez, P., Bergmann, U., Dresrüsse, P., Fröde, A., Hoppe, M. and Rotzinger, S. (2005) Linking protected area management and HIV/AIDS prevention – experiences from Ankarafantsika National Park, Madagascar, Parks 15(1): 13-24 Maller, C., Townsend, M., Pryor, A., Brown, P. and St Leger, L. (2006) Healthy nature - healthy people: ‘Contact with nature’ as an upstream health promotion intervention for populations, Health Promot. Int. 21 Medicinal Plant Conservation Network, mpcn.frlht.org.in/index.htm, accessed 1st August 2009 Medicinal Plant Specialist Group (2007) International Standard for Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC-MAP). Version 1.0, Bundesamt für Naturschutz (BfN), MPSG/SSC/IUCN, WWF Germany, and TRAFFIC, Bonn, Gland, Frankfurt, and Cambridge Morita, E., Fukuda, S., Nagano, J., Hamajima, N., Yamamoto, H., Iwai, Y., Nakashima, T., Ohira, H. and Shirakawa, T. (2007) Psychological effects of forest environments on healthy adults: Shinrin-yoku (forest-air bathing, walking) as a possible method of stress reduction, Public Health, 121 Montenegro, R. A. and Stephens, C. (2006) Indigenous health in Latin America and the Caribbean, The Lancet, 367:3 Phoenix Futures, www.phoenix-futures.org.uk/Filestore/Phoenix_Futures_CTP_PDF_Sept_2008.pdf, accessed 1st August 2009 Natural England (2008) Policy Position: Health and Wellbeing Statement, September 2008, Natural England, Sheffield, UK NPS (2000); Natural Resource Year in Review--2000, The National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, USA Oglethorpe, J., Honzak, C. and Margoluis, C. (2008) Healthy people, healthy ecosystems: A manual for integrating health and family planning into conservation projects, World Wildlife Fund, Washington, D.C. Park, B-J., Tsunetsugu, Y., Ishii, H., Furuhashi, S., Hirano, H., Kagawa, T. and Miyazaki, Y. (2008) Physiological effects of Shinrin-yoku (taking in the atmosphere of the forest) in a mixed forest in Shinano Town, Japan, Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 23:3, 278 - 283 Pattanayak, S. K., Corey, C. G., Lau, Y. F. and Kramer, R. A. (2003) Forest malaria: A microeconomic study of forest protection and child malaria in Flores, Indonesia, Duke University, USA, available at: www.env.duke.edu/solutions/documents/forest-malaria.pdf , accessed 1st August 2009 Prüss-Üstün A. and Corvalán C. (2006) Preventing disease through healthy environments – Towards an estimate of the environmental burden of disease, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland Schopp-Guth, A. and Fremuth, W. (2001) Sustainable use of medicinal plants and nature conservation in the Prespa National Park area, Albania, Medicinal Plant Conservation, 7, BfN, Germany Sneader, W. (2005) Drug Discovery: A History, John Wiley and Sons, USA Stolton, S. and Dudley, N. (2009); Vital Sites: The contribution of protected areas to human health ,WWF International, Gland, Switzerland Tibbetts, J. (2004) The state of the oceans, part 2: delving deeper into the sea's bounty, Environmental Health Perspectives, 112:8 Tilburt, J. C. and Kaptchuk, T. J. (2008) Herbal medicine research and global health: an ethical analysis, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, Volume 86, 8: 577-656 Torell, E., Kalangahe, B., Thaxton, M., Issa, A., Pieroth, V., Fahmy, O. and Tobey, J. (2007) Guidelines for Mitigating the Impacts of HIV/AIDS on Coastal Biodiversity and Natural Resource Management, Population Reference Bureau, Washington, DC WWF (2008) Common Ground: Solutions for reducing the human, economic and conservation costs of human wildlife conflict, WWF International UNDP (1994); Conserving Indigenous Knowledge: Integrating two systems of innovation, An independent study by the Rural Advancement Foundation International, UNDP US Patent (1998) Patent no: 5801172 - Antifungal agent from sporomiella minimoides, www.patentstorm.us/patents/5801172/description.html, accessed 1st August 2009 Yeatts, D. S. (2006) Characteristics of Thermal Springs and the Shallow Ground-Water System at Hot Springs National Park, Arkansas, United States Geological Survey, Virginia Vittor, A. Y., Pan, W., Gilman, R. H., Tielsch, J., Glass, G., Shields, T., Sánchez-Lozano, W., Pinedo, V. V., Salas-Cobos, E., Flores, S. and Patz, J. A. (2009) Linking Deforestation to Malaria in the Amazon: Characterization of the Breeding Habitat of the Principal Malaria Vector, Anopheles darling, Am J Trop Med Hyg, 81: 5 – 12 Walsh J. F., Molyneux, D. H. and Birley, M. H. (1993) Deforestation: effects on vector-borne disease, Parasitology,106 WHO (1946) Preamble to the Constitution of the World Health Organization, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland WHO (2002) The World Health Report 2002: Reducing Risks, Promoting Healthy Life, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland WHO (2005) Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Health Synthesis, WHO, Geneva, Switzerland Wilcox, B. A. and Ellis B. (2006) Forests and emerging infectious diseases of humans, Unasylva, 57:224 Wilson, E. O. (1984) Biophilia, Harvard University Press Zakrzewski, P. A. (2002) Bioprospecting or Biopiracy? The Pharmaceutical Industry’s Use of Indigenous Medicinal Plants as a Source of Potential Drug Candidates, University of Toronto Medical Journal, 79:3 [a] Case study 2.1: Protecting medicinal resources in Colombia Sue Stolton, María Ximena Barrera Rey and Luis German
Orito Ingi Ande is in the Colombian Amazon Piedmont, the transition zone between Andean ecosystems and the lowlands. The Sanctuary is located in part of an ancestral territory of the Kofán and has long been an area of commercial exchange and socio-cultural relationships with other local indigenous communities (Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia, 2007). The area covers 10,200 ha of tropical rainforest and Andean forest ranging from between 700 and 3300 metres above sea level. The area is biologically rich containing an estimated 400 bird species and many species of amphibians, reptiles and mammals, such as the spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus) and the jaguar (Panthera onca), both endangered species (Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia, 2008). The area is also important for medicinal plants, with over a hundred plants from the medicinal gardens of the area used by the local people. Two species in particular are inextricably linked with the local culture: the yoco (Paullinia yoco) and yagé (Banisteriopsis caapi). The yoco liana is one of the most highly regarded medicinal plants in northwestern Amazon. According to Jose Pablo Jaramillo, Programme Director of the NGO Amazon Conservation Team (ACT), Colombia: “Yoco can be considered a ‘keystone’ species in terms of conservation, necessitating the protection of the surrounding ecosystem”. The whole culture and way of life of the various indigenous groups of the area is based on the ritual and sacred consumption of yagé. In consequence, anthropologists have named this region and its inhabitants the ‘culture of yagé’, which is regarded as one of the most purely preserved shamanic traditions in the world (Stolton et al, 2009). This part of the Amazon has been greatly affected by colonization. The indigenous peoples of the region have lost the majority of their territories, and deforestation has resulted in the loss of medicinal plants and the consequent impoverishment of cultures and traditional medical systems (Zuluaga Ramírez, 2005). The traditional healers, or Taitas, have however long fought for the preservation of their culture. At a ‘Gathering of Taitas’ in Yurayaco, in the foothills of the Colombian Amazon in 1999, 40 of the most prominent indigenous healers from seven tribes met for the first time to discuss the future of their forests, their medicine and their people. The result was the Union of Traditional Yagé Healers of the Colombian Amazon (UMIYAC after its Spanish name) whose jointly signed declaration became the basis of this new alliance (AmazonTeam, 2009). They stated that: “We consider yagé, our medicinal plants and our wisdom to be gifts from God and of great benefit for the health of humanity. This Gathering may be our last opportunity to unite and defend our rights. Our motivation is not economic or political. We are seriously determined to demonstrate to the world the importance of our values”; and they noted that: “We must regain possession of our territories and sacred sites. The forest is for us the fountain of our resources. If the forests disappear so will medicine and life”. The declaration of a floristic sanctuary, focusing on medicinal plants, is an initiative from this alliance, and is seen as a means of combining the protection of the habitat and the biological resources with that of the traditional medicine systems, thus contributing to recovery of the area’s natural, cultural and intangible heritage. One strategy to protect the forests, their resources and the associated culture is through training and education for the followers of traditional medicine – to ensure that traditions are kept alive. This educational need was summarised by one member of the local community: “To lead a respectable life, children used to be taken to the ‘taitas’ to receive advice from them and for them to cure them drinking ‘yagé’. It is necessary to guide young people and children not to lose the habits and for them to grow up and be educated with the ancestral values. Young people today don’t care about earth, nature nor family, everything is getting lost.” (Stolton et al, 2009). [b] Cosmovision Orito Ingi Ande is the only protected area in Colombia primarily dedicated to the conservation of medicinal flora. But it is much more than just an area set aside to conserve plant species. In the words of Juan Lozano, former Minister for the Environment of Colombia: “The declaration of the Sanctuary Orito Ingi Ande is an important landmark in the history of the National Natural Parks of Colombia. The category of Sanctuary of Flora of Medicinal Plants harmonizes the western point of view of the conservation of biodiversity with the traditional integrated management of the Cosmovision of the Kofán People. The preservation and survival of their customs and traditions in the use and management of medicinal plants depends on the conservation of these territories”. The protection of the area through its declaration part of the National Natural Parks System is seen by the UMIYAC as an alliance to guarantee the perpetuity of the area and its values. [b] Reference AmazonTeam (2009) www.amazonteam.org/index.php/218/Indigenous_Gatherings, accessed 1st August 2009 Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia (2007) Justificación para la declaración del área protegida, Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia, Bogotá Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia (2008) The Sanctuary of Flora “Medicinal Plants Orito Ingi Ande” is born, Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia, Press Release Bogotá, June 12th, 2008, www.minambiente.gov.co/contenido/contenido.aspx?catID=718&conID=2188&pagID=1821, accessed 1st August 2009 Stolton, S. and Dudley, N. (2009) Vital Sites: The contribution of protected areas to human health, WWF, Gland, Switzerland Zuluaga Ramírez, G. (2005) Conservation of the Biological and Cultural Diversity of the Colombian Amazon Piedmont: Dr. Schultes’ Legacy; Ethnobotany Research & Applications 3:179-188 [a] Case study 2.2: Parks Victoria (Australia) Healthy Parks Healthy People initiative John Senior Parks Victoria is a statutory authority that manages a diverse array of environments extending over four million hectares in the State of Victoria, Australia. These areas include national (terrestrial and marine) and state parks, conservation reserves as well as major metropolitan parks in Melbourne. Like many protected area management agencies around the world, Parks Victoria needs to remain relevant to communities and governments in the midst of many other important considerations. Issues affecting education, health, security, transport, energy and water, among others, can overshadow parks when legislators are considering environmental priorities. However, there is no need to exclude one priority at the expense of another. Increasingly governments are encouraging more holistic strategies that foster partnerships between sectors and which involve collaborations that realign common interests. Parks Victoria’s unique range and scale of responsibilities enable it to readily communicate with its urban constituencies about the value of biodiversity in relation to human well-being and thereby positively influence both their advocacy and visitor impact. [b] Strategic Direction On the basis of a research project carried out for Parks Victoria by Deakin University’s Faculty of Health and Behavioural Sciences (Maller et al, 2008), Parks Victoria has progressively adopted a ‘Healthy Parks, Healthy People’ approach to all aspects of its business. This philosophy seeks to reinforce and encourage the connection between a healthy environment and a healthy society, particularly as more people are now living in urban-dominated environments and have less regular contact with nature. Progressively the organisation has recognised that it has a clear role to play in enabling people to experience the health benefits associated with the precious natural environment. To achieve this role, new partnerships were required along with the need to dissolve disciplinary barriers and realign common interests with others, such as those within the health and community sectors. However, this kind of collaboration does not just happen; political support, champions, leadership, research and public awareness campaigns are all necessary to shift into a new park management paradigm. 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