Rights and Responsibilities: The Ludlow Massacre and the Colorado Industrial Plan
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Rights and Responsibilities: The Ludlow Massacre and the Colorado Industrial Plan Eric Sun
Senior Division Historical Paper “It was the first murder I had ever seen, for it was a murder and nothing less. Then the miners ran about in the tent colony and women and children scuttled for safety in the pits, which afterward trapped them. We watched from our rock shelter while the militia dragged up their machine guns and poured a murderous fire into the arroyo from a height by Water Tank Hill above the Ludlow depot. Then came the firing of the tents.” - Godfrey Irwin, eyewitness to the Ludlow Massacre, 19141 One hundred years ago, on April 20, 1914, a fight for corporate responsibilities and workers’ rights claimed the lives of nineteen individuals, but changed the lives of millions2. This incident took place in Ludlow, Colorado but would forever be branded in the hearts of all Americans as the Ludlow Massacre.3 Following the Ludlow Massacre, there would be further violence between the strikers, coal miners, and the militiamen from the Colorado National Guard. By the time the conflict had resolved, sixty-six people were dead.4 From the sweat, blood, and tears of the strikers, the Colorado Industrial Plan would be passed, paving a road for future labor reform. In 1862, a young man barely over the age of twenty began investigating the novel oil refining business.5 His name was John D. Rockefeller.6 In the following years, Rockefeller would enter the oil refining business and amass an impressive fortune, becoming the richest man in America at only forty years of age.7 Always seeking new economic opportunities, John D. Rockefeller set his sights on a steel company headquartered in Colorado.8 This company was known as the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company or the CF&I. The CF&I was established in 1892 to secure natural resources to produce steel.9 To fulfill this goal, the company owned several mines and mills.10 By 1903, after an expensive modernization campaign, the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company was drained of financial resources.11 Subsequently, John D. Rockefeller, Sr. took advantage of this predicament and purchased the company. The Rockefellers would remain as the primary owners of the CF&I until the late 1940s.12 Under Rockefeller’s leadership, the CF&I expanded to include over sixty mines and quarries in Colorado, Utah, Oklahoma, Wyoming and New Mexico. The company also became the largest owner of land in all of Colorado.13 With power comes responsibility, and with the CF&I’s newfound power came the issue of workers’ rights. Miners and workers for the CF&I had to live in company housing, which were owned by the company and rented out to its workers.14 Miners were paid in scrip, a form of currency that could only be redeemed at company stores.15 In addition, the company controlled almost every aspect of the miners’ lives from medical issues to buying groceries.16 This intrusion coupled with the low wages and poor working conditions became the formula for a strike.17 In 1883, Colorado miners organized their first strike, which was quickly put down by the CF&I. This would only be the precursor to the largest strike in Colorado history. In 1913, coal miners organized a strike with the United Mine Workers of America and crafted a list of demands and grievances to be sent to the CF&I.18 The miners demanded: Recognition of the United Mineworkers of America… an effective system of checkweighmen in all mines, compensation for digging coal at a ton-rate based on 2,000 pounds, semi-monthly payment of wages in lawful money, the abolition of scrip and the truck system, an end to discrimination against union members, and strict enforcement of state laws pertaining to operators’ obligations in supplying miners with timbers, rails, and other materials in underground working places.19 Despite the best efforts of the United Mine Workers of America to reach an agreement, the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company would acknowledge neither the union nor the strike.20 Instead of upholding its responsibility to its former workers, the CF&I brought in replacement miners to work in the company. The strikers referred to the replacement workers as “scabs”.21 This derogatory term was derived from the workers being an unwanted replacement.22 With tents and materials supplied by the United Mine Workers of America, the strikers formed multiple tent colonies throughout Colorado in order to establish a long-lasting strike.23 Tension began to mount between the strikers, the new workers, and the CF&I. Suspecting that this tension would escalate into violence, the CF&I hired the Baldwin-Felts Detective Agency to break up the strike.24 Their suspicions were ironically confirmed on August 16, 1913, when agents from the Baldwin-Felts Detective Agency assassinated the union organizer, Gerald Lippiatti.25 He would be the first in a long string of gruesome deaths that would plague Colorado for many months to come. In addition to using brutality, the Baldwin-Felts Detective Agency deployed a vehicle referred to as the “Death Special”. The “Death Special” was armored with steel plates and mounted with a machine gun. Periodically, it would spray machine gun fire into the tent colony and terrorize the strikers.26 The strikers and the United Mine Workers refused to give up and the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company refused to give in. As both sides readied themselves for future conflict, Governor Ammons of Colorado grew worried of the imminent violence. In response, he sent in the Colorado National Guard to keep the peace.27 On November 1, 1913, the Colorado National Guard entered the vicinity of the largest tent colony set up during the strike: Ludlow. Days before, the strikers had heard of their deployment.28 With elated hearts, the miners went about preparing for the arrival of what they believed to be justice. To the strikers, the Colorado National Guard symbolized the reason they came to the United States in the first place: to pursue the American Dream.29 In order to welcome the militiamen, the adults put on their best traditional clothes, and their children were dressed up in white.30 As the Colorado National Guard came into view, the children were seen waving American flags.31 But instead of assisting the miners, the Colorado National Guard did the exact opposite. Their first course of action was to disarm the strikers and “confiscate their arms and ammunitions”.32 Although the Colorado National Guard painstakingly searched each and every tent, some hidden weapons were able to avoid confiscation.33 The events at Ludlow made national headlines and the Commission on Industrial Relations was organized to investigate the circumstances.34 The problem in Ludlow had become an illustration of the struggle between labor rights and corporate power throughout the entire United States. On March 28, 1914, the Colorado National Guard was abruptly recalled from Ludlow.35 Governor Ammons had realized that the deployment of the Colorado National Guard was only adding fuel to the fire and draining precious government resources.36 Although the Colorado National Guard was officially recalled, two main units were hired by the CF&I and remained in the area.37 The Colorado National Guard essentially became arms for hire. On April 19, 1914, in order to lighten the mood of the miners and their families, Louis Tikas, one of the leaders of the strike, held a Greek Easter celebration.38 During the festivity, the Baldwin-Felts Detective Agency and militiamen hired by the CF&I rode through the tent colony and reportedly taunted the strikers.39 This would be the last night of the coal miners’ strike. The next morning, on April 20, 1914, tension between the coal miners and the Colorado National Guard escalated to the point of violence and fighting ensued. The Ludlow Massacre would claim the lives of many strikers as well eleven children and two women.40 The most haunting event of the massacre was when, at the end of the fighting, the Ludlow tent colony caught on fire and suffocated women and children that were hiding in underground cellars.41 The Colorado Women’s Peace Conference went as far as to accuse the militiamen of purposely setting the tents on fire.42 Even to this day, it is still unclear who fired the first shot.43 According to a report published by the Colorado National Guard, the Ludlow strikers had started the fight, and the militiamen had acted out in self-defense.44 However, a much less biased testimony found in the Aspen Democratic-Times reveals a different story. According to its article, a station agent and telegrapher testified that he knew the Colorado National Guard planned to burn the Ludlow tent colony.45 The article goes on to reveal that the first shots fired came from Water Tank Hill where the Colorado National Guard was stationed.46 Although the exact cause of the Ludlow Massacre remains a mystery, it is definitely clear that the strikers who had peacefully protested for months were provoked to violence by the Colorado National Guard. The Ludlow Massacre is clear proof that the CF&I failed to uphold its responsibility as a corporation to resolve matters with its workers diplomatically. Furthermore, the Government of Colorado failed in its duty to protect the people and promote equality. Instead, the Colorado National Guard is responsible for the massacre of the miners whose only crime was seeking a better quality of life. The Colorado Coal Field War did not end with the Ludlow Massacre. Afterwards, large-scale fighting broke out between the CF&I and Colorado miners.47 The most intense days of fighting occurred in a period of ten days after the massacre. Collectively, these incidences of violence were known as the 10-day War.48 The fight against the injustices prevalent in the Ludlow Massacre was not exclusive to Colorado. Reportedly, on April 24, 1914, 3,500 Wyoming miners expressed willingness to take up arms and help their counterparts in Colorado.49 What was once a localized incident had become a banner that miners everywhere rallied under. The violence had spiraled out of control to the point that on May 1, 1914, Governor Ammons actually sent a request for federal aid to President Woodrow Wilson.50 It would take seven more months before the Colorado Coal Field War drew to a close. The legal issues stemming from this conflict would not be resolved until the late 1920’s.51 Ultimately, the Colorado Coal Field War ended in failure for the UMWA, but a ray of hope remained in the future. At first, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. denied the occurrence of the Ludlow Massacre, stating, “There was no Ludlow massacre.”52 As news spread of the Ludlow Massacre, negative public opinion of the Rockefeller family was generated.53 With the increasing negative publicity and even a personal appeal from President Wilson, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. relented and introduced the Colorado Industrial Plan to mend his broken reputation.54 Rockefeller expressed his concern for his workers writing, “That in dealing with employees he is dealing with human beings, with flesh and blood, with hearts and souls.”55 The Colorado Industrial Plan, also known as the Rockefeller Plan, introduced in 1916 was, at first, just an attempt to heal the Rockefellers’ damaged public image.56 Rather than provide a true union to address the grievances of the mineworkers, the Rockefeller Plan created a company-run union in an effort to regain popularity. President McLennan of the Colorado State Federation of Labor was quick to criticize the Rockefeller Plan, commenting, “The plan is an unqualified failure from every standpoint but one. It has given the capitalistic press agents a chance to talk, write, and print.”57 Eventually, the Colorado Industrial Plan began to address some of the issues of the mineworkers.58 In fact, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. examined personal letters from the mineworkers and met several of their demands including the construction of a bandstand and the establishment of a baseball team.59 Entailed in the Rockefeller Plan were certain clauses that would enforce a nine-hour workday, better wages, better working conditions, and most importantly create a company union that CF&I workers could use to address their grievances.60 It seemed that although Rockefeller only intended to change the public opinion, the Colorado Industrial Plan would provide a baseline of responsibilities for the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company to uphold. The historian, Johnathan H. Rees, describes the situation of the CF&I employees as: Both the company’s coal miners and steelworkers were better off working under the Rockefeller Plan than they would have been working under no union at all… no matter how beneficial or altruistic any management-dominated union might have been, ERPs [Employee Representation Plans] such as the one at CF&I inevitably paled in comparison to independent trade unions from the workers’ perspective because they could not offer workers the freedom to act independent of management.61 The Colorado Industrial Plan did not solve all of the miners’ problems, but it was a step in the right direction that paved the road for future labor rights victories. Later, it would become an important part of the formation of stronger, independent unions. One of the first victories created by the events in Colorado was the report published by the Commission on Industrial Relations in 1915, which read: The State of Colorado through its military arm was rendered helpless to maintain law and order because that military arm had acted, not as an agent of the commonwealth, but as an agent of one of the parties in interest, as an agent, that is, of the coal operators, as against the strikers.62 Through the sacrifice and resolve of the Coloradoan strikers, a new movement for company responsibilities and workers’ rights was born. On May 25, 1925, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of organized unions in the case of Coronado Coal Company v. United Mine Workers of America.63 This ruling helped pave the road for organized labor in Colorado. In 1935, the Wagner Act or National Labor Relations Act was passed after decades of labor strikes like those that occurred during the Colorado Coal Field War.64 The Wagner Act gave workers the right to unionize and provided groundwork for future movements in labor rights.65 The Colorado Industrial Plan would be the first step in a long line of legislation that would recognize the rights of workers.66 Decades after the Ludlow Massacre of 1914, the world still remembers the sacrifice of nineteen lives that was needed for companies to realize the need for labor reform. The Colorado Industrial Plan that was introduced as a direct result of the incident at Ludlow remains one of the first steps ever taken to promote better working conditions, labor rights, and a company union.67 Even today, the Ludlow Massacre and the Colorado Industrial Plan reminds the world that there is and will always be a delicate balance between the rights of the workers and the responsibilities of governments and companies. In 2008, the U.S. Department of the Interior established the site of the Ludlow Massacre as a National Historic Landmark.68 At the dedication ceremony, UMWA International President Cecil E. Roberts announced in memory of the Ludlow Massacre: The tragic lessons from Ludlow still echo throughout our nation, and they must never be forgotten by Americans who truly care about workplace fairness and equality… With this designation, the story of what happened at Ludlow will remain part of our nation's history. That is as it should be."69
This newspaper article differed from the other articles that were referenced. Instead of praising the Colorado National Guard, this newspaper article revealed that one member of the militia testified that the Colorado National Guard was at fault.
This newspaper article detailed how Adjutant General Chase pursued a general court martial for all the officers involved in the Ludlow Massacre. This article helped show me that at the very least, the Colorado government was embarrassed by its actions and had taken steps to ensure some sense of justice to the miners.
This newspaper article described the coal field war between the Colorado National Guard and the miners. More importantly, it outlined how miners in other states were willing to pick up arms to fight for the Colorado miners. This was significant in showing me the full impact of the Ludlow Massacre and what it meant to workers everywhere.
This newspaper article describes the events that took place after the Ludlow Massacre, which included a protest of over 5,000 men, women, and children. Additionally, this article revealed how President Wilson sent a personal appeal to John D. Rockefeller, Jr. in hopes of spurring him to action. This source helped me see the national impact of the Ludlow Massacre.
This was the report issued by the Commission on Industrial Relations in regards to their investigation of the Ludlow Massacre. Ultimately, the conclusion was in favor of individual workers and of the UMWA. This was a useful source for illustrating the impact that the Ludlow Massacre had on changing public opinion of organized labor. Congressional Committee, The Military Occupation of the Coal Strike Zone of Colorado by the National Guard (1913-1914), 1914 (Colo. 1914). The report filed by the Colorado National Guard was an useful primary source that illustrated the Ludlow Massacre from the viewpoints of the National Guard. Although the report was subjective, its subjectivity was useful in exposing the full color of the struggle between lower-class workers and the company owners that were backed by the government. Coronado Coal Company et al. v. United Mine Workers of America et al., No. 268-295 (May 25, 1925). The Supreme Court ruling in this court case was an important part of my research towards the effects that the Ludlow Massacre and the Colorado Industrial Plan had on future changes. This ruling was in favor of unions and was one of the first turning points in the battle for workers' rights. Daily Journal (Telluride, CO). "Gov. Ammons Withdraws All Troops From Coal Fields." February 27, 1914, Front Page, 1. This article was published when Governor Ammons decided to recall the Colorado National Guard. This helped illustrate the dynamics between the CF&I, Colorado government, and the mineworkers. I found this article to be useful in the reasons it provided for the withdrawal of troops. Daily Journal (Telluride, CO). "Miners Fail to Get Rockefeller Arrested." September 29, 1915, Front Page, 1. This newspaper article was published about a year after the Ludlow Massacre. It is one of the only sources that discusses the actions the UMWA took after the Ludlow Massacre, especially in regards to legal persecution against the Rockefeller family. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination: Ludlow Tent Colony Site, Doc. (2008). This government document was the official recognition of the Ludlow Tent Colony Site as a historical landmark. This was useful in providing me with a long-term impact that was a direct result of the massacre. More importantly, it showed the significance of the Ludlow Massacre even to this day. Fink, Walter H. The Ludlow Massacre. Denver,CO: Williamson-Hoffner Press, 1914. As a thorough analysis and summary of the events leading up to the Ludlow Massacre, this resource gave valuable information on the Death Special, practices of the National Guard, as well as specific instances of violence during the strike. Fort Collins Weekly Courier (Fort Collins, CO). "Woman's Peace Conference Reports on Ludlow Horror and Demand Many Things." May 8, 1914, Front Page, 1. This report published in the newspaper revealed some specific causes and possible details to the actual Ludlow Massacre. This included a report by a women's conference, which accused the Colorado government of planning the attack and purposefully setting the tents on fire. This source was extremely helpful in providing a different perspective of the Ludlow incident.
As a primary source, this document provided an extensive look into the views and opinions of the company owners in response to questions about their working conditions. This testimony was extremely useful in providing a clear understanding of why the Rockefeller Plan was established and why the company responded in the particular way that they did to the strike.
Irwin's eyewitness account of the proceedings during the Ludlow Massacre was an unique document that allowed me to piece together the events and motivations for both sides of the conflict. Even more importantly, this press release gave me an insightful and colorful picture of what happened.
This large collection of various primary sources was extremely useful when I was conducting research. The most important piece of information that I obtained from this work was the stance of President McLennan of the Colorado State Federation of Labor on the Ludlow Massacre and the actions taken by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. as a result.
This photograph of the Ludlow tent colony before it was burned down was useful in giving me a visual of what the tent colony was like and what the life at the tent colony was like. In addition, it helped crystallize some of the events that occurred and offered them in context.
The Wagner Act document was a primary source that helped me see how far labor reform had come since the Ludlow Massacre. It also provided a long-term impact that the Ludlow Massacre influenced.
As a newspaper article published around the time of the Ludlow Massacre, this primary source provided quotes from various political figures in regards to the implementation of the Colorado Industrial Plan. This article offered a perspective opposing the Rockefeller Plan.
This newspaper article describes the negative public opinion generated by the Ludlow Massacre. It revealed how Rockefeller was put in a desperate situation to heal his public image. This was useful in explaining his actions in crafting the Rockefeller Plan. New York Times (New York, NY). "Two Women Depict Battle of Ludlow." February 4, 1915, 6-7. As a primary source, this newspaper article offered a national perspective on the Ludlow Massacre. This newspaper article was most useful in helping me understand the impact the Ludlow Massacre had on the nation and all Americans.
This primary document was the actual Rockefeller Plan that was implemented during and after the Ludlow Massacre. Overall, this typescript was extremely useful in its content and its illustration of the balance of rights and responsibilities between the miners and the company owners.
This magazine article written by John D. Rockefeller, Jr. provided his views on the responsibility of a corporation to uphold the rights of its workers. Parts of this article was used in all entirety in my paper.
This newspaper article was an interesting primary source that detailed the events that occurred during the fighting at the Ludlow Massacre. Although somewhat subjective, this article was important in understanding both the public opinion and portrayal of the Ludlow Massacre at that time.
"Safety Bulletin: Coal Mines." 1953. CF&I Archives. Bessemer Historical Society, Pueblo, CO. As a primary source, this article revealed the working conditions of the mines almost forty years after the Ludlow Massacre. Interestingly, this article revealed that working conditions were not considerably improved. This was an extremely valuable piece of information in my paper. Special Board of Officers, Ludlow, being the report of the Special Board of Officers appointed by the Governor of Colorado to investigate and determine the facts with reference to the armed conflict between the Colorado National Guard and certain persons engaged at the coal mining strike at Ludlow, Colo., April 20, 1914, 1914 (Colo. 1914). As a primary source, this report was an integral part of the full understanding of the topic. This report and investigation was important to understanding the role of the Colorado Government and also their perspective on the Ludlow Massacre and the coal miners' strike.
This article in the newspaper revealed a message from Governor Ammons to President Wilson asking for federal troops to be sent to put down the fight led by the Colorado miners. This was an interesting source that opened my eyes to the circumstances that existed right after the massacre and the dynamics present then.
As a primary source, this newspaper article offered a valuable look into the battle at Ludlow as well as the government's response to that incident. This article was unique in providing details on what the federal government did in response to the Ludlow Massacre.
Secondary Sources AFL-CIO. "Labor History Timeline." AFL-CIO. Accessed January 26, 2014. http://www.aflcio.org/About/Our-History/Labor-History-Timeline. As a timeline of labor rights in all of US history, this source gave me a good idea of the significance of the Ludlow Massacre and the impact it had on future labor rights movements. More importantly, it allowed to look at the big picture and see where the Ludlow incident fit in.
This online article provided a link between labor unions, strikes, violent instances like the Ludlow Massacre and the Wagner Act that legalized unions and provided the groundwork for our modern labor rights and rules.
This biography on John D. Rockefeller, Sr. was useful in providing a basic understanding of the corporate powers in place during and before the Ludlow Massacre. This book gave a detailed description of how one of the most important men in America came to power, and how he was connected to the labor movement.
This book contained a lot of photographs of what life was like in one of the company towns owned by the CF&I. It was extremely insightful and helped give me a better understanding of the time period and customs in that particular lifestyle. In addition to pictures, this book included descriptions of the everyday lives of the strikers, which was very useful.
Colorado Bar Association. "Historical Foreword." CBA. Last modified 2003. Accessed March 12, 2014. http://www.cobar.org/index.cfm/ID/581/dpwfp/Historical-Foreward-and-Bibliography/. This article extensively summarized all the events of the Ludlow Massacre and several events before and after the incident. Most importantly, this article provided a description and a picture of the Death Special that terrorized the tent colony. Crain, Caleb. "There Was Blood." The New Yorker. Last modified January 19, 2009. Accessed March 20, 2014. http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2009/01/19/090119crbo_books_crain. This brief article reviewing the Ludlow Massacre was interesting and helped provide further elucidation of the events before and after the massacre. Most importantly, this article contained valuable details on the number of deaths as well as a specific outline of what happened. Denver Public Library. "The Ludlow Massacre." Western History and Genealogy. Last modified September 16, 2013. Accessed March 10, 2014. http://history.denverlibrary.org/content/ludlow-massacre. This website article was most useful in its description of replacement workers or "scabs", and their role in the playing out of events in the Ludlow Massacre. In addition, this article outlined some other key events including violent incidents that happened prior to the massacre. George Mason University. "In the Hot Seat: Rockefeller Testifies on Ludlow." History Matters. Accessed March 11, 2014. http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5735/. This article contained information on the interviews conducted by the Commission on Industrial Relations in late 1913 and early 1914. It included excerpts from the testimony of John D. Rockefeller, Jr. and an analysis of the conditions at Ludlow. Harvard Business School. "Colorado Fuel and Iron Corp." Lehman Brothers Collection. Accessed January 22, 2014. http://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/lehman/company.html?company=colorado_fuel_and_iron_corp. This article on the Colorado Fuel and Iron Corporation or CF&I was an instrumental piece of my whole understanding of the complex players in the Ludlow Massacre. Overall, this source provided great background information on the history of the steel mill. Martelle, Scott. Blood Passion: The Ludlow Massacre and Class War in the American West. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1958. This book was the fundamental basis for much of knowledge when writing about the occurrences at Ludlow. This well-crafted piece was able to provide great details, a general background, and an overall stance and opinion on the topic as a whole. It helped me visualize the events leading up to the massacre as well as gain a perspective on the issue of rights and responsibilities.
As a concise but detailed article, this secondary source was extremely valuable to my basic understanding of the Rockefeller Plan's role in the tension between the CF&I, the mine workers, and John D. Rockefeller, Jr.
I interviewed Professor Montoya who is the author of a book on the Colorado Industrial Plan. This interview helped clear up a lot of my questions regarding the Rockefeller Plan and the Ludlow Massacre. The interview helped me recognize the character of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. Additionally, I received a lot of information on the life in a company town and the impact of the Rockefeller Plan.
"1914: The Ludlow massacre." Libcom. Accessed January 24, 2014. http://libcom.org/history/1914-the-ludlow-massacre. Overall, this source was an important part of the background understanding of the events that happened at Ludlow. It gave some interesting information on the massacre and the public response to the massacre.
This was an interesting book that gave a unique perspective of the whole affair from the view of the miners and especially Louis Tikas. Overall, it gave a great background understanding of the complicated details.
As a biography of John D. Rockefeller, Jr., this article gave valuable background information on the relationship between Rockefeller and the Colorado Coal Field Wars. In addition, this biography illustrated Rockefeller's response to the Ludlow Massacre. ———. "The Ludlow Massacre." American Experience. Accessed April 2, 2014. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/rockefellers-ludlow/. This article gave a brief overview of the Ludlow Massacre, especially regarding the number of deaths that resulted from the incident. It was helpful in illustrating details that occurred during the massacre. It also included quotations and letters from John D. Rockefeller, Jr. in response to the Ludlow Massacre, which painted another perspective to the conflict. Poole, Keith. "Biography: John D. Rockefeller, Senior." American Experience. Accessed January 24, 2014. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/biography/rockefellers-john/. As an article detailing the life of John D. Rockefeller, this source was exceptionally effective at portraying the life of the man behind CF&I as well as Rockefeller's ties with the Ludlow Massacre. All in all, this article introduced a great amount of background information. Prince, Dawn Di. "Colorado Coal Field Wars (1913-1914)." Lecture, Pueblo West High School, January 7, 2014. This lecture provided me with a great and thorough background and analysis of the events leading up to and during the Ludlow Massacre. In addition, the speaker was very effective at conveying some of the small interesting details and intricacies in the Ludlow incident. Rees, Johnathan H. Representation and Rebellion: The Rockefeller Plan at the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, 1914-1942. Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado, 2010. This book by a college professor included extensive research and analysis on the rights of the workers and the responsibilities of the companies. This resource was a fundamental block of background knowledge that allowed me to make sense of the Ludlow Massacre and the causes behind it.
This extensive overview of the history of the CF&I was an important part of my research. I obtained valuable information on CF&I activity before its purchase by Rockefeller and after its purchase. In addition, it included a brief description of the CF&I during the Colorado Coal Field War. Saitta, Dean J. "History and Legacy of the Ludlow Massacre." Last modified December 2001. PDF. This document included an extensive analysis of the Ludlow Massacre and a detailed summary of the events before, during, and after the incident. This was extremely helpful in outlining some of the more obscure details for me and giving me a good background understanding of the topic.
This brief overview of the Ludlow Massacre provided valuable quotations, especially on the effects of the Ludlow Massacre that are felt even today. In addition, this source was useful in obtaining an overview of the massacre from the viewpoint of one of its key players, the UMWA. University of Denver. "The Archaeology of the 1913-14 Colorado Coal Field War Project." Colorado Coal Field War Project. Accessed January 21, 2014. http://www.du.edu/ludlow/cfarch.html. Overall, this article provided extensive information on current research on the Ludlow Massacre as well as the various artifacts that were uncovered at the excavation site. In addition, this article provided details on how the site was excavated. ———. "A History of the Colorado Coal Field War." Colorado Coal Field War Project. Accessed January 21, 2014. http://www.du.edu/ludlow/cfhist.html. This brief article on the Ludlow Massacre and the coal field wars was extremely useful in providing me with background knowledge of the topic and the tensions between the workers and the owners. In addition, I received information on the delicate balance of rights and responsibilities between these two entities.
This overview of the history of the Colorado Coal Field Wars was an integral part of my research. This article provided an extensive in-context summary of the Ludlow Massacre and how it continues to impact labor rights. Also, this article provided several specific details that occurred during the massacre.
As a timeline of the events that occurred before, during, and after the Ludlow Massacre, this resource was useful for reference and background knowledge. In addition, it expanded on several important details that were not found in any other sources.
This extensive summary of the history of CF&I proved useful in understanding the background of the company and its relationship with the Ludlow Massacre, the Colorado Industrial Plan, and John D. Rockefeller.
This book had information on many significant events in US history. It was helpful in outlining several events leading up to and during the Ludlow Massacre. The book also put the Ludlow Massacre into context with the rest of US history, which was extremely helpful. 1 Godfrey Irwin, "Eyewitness to Murder: Recounting the Ludlow Massacre," news release, 1914, 1. 2 Caleb Crain, "There Was Blood," The New Yorker, last modified January 19, 2009, accessed March 20, 2014, http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2009/01/19/090119crbo_books_crain. 3 "Two Women Depict Battle of Ludlow," New York Times (New York, NY), February 4, 1915, 6. 4 Scott Martelle, Blood Passion: The Ludlow Massacre and Class War in the American West (Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1958) 5 Keith Poole, "Biography: John D. Rockefeller, Senior," American Experience, accessed January 24, 2014, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/biography/rockefellers-john/. 6 Ibid. 7 Ron Chernow, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. (New York, NY: Random House, 1998), 44. 8 "Biography: John D. Rockefeller, Junior," American Experience, accessed January 26, 2014, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/biography/rockefellers-johnjr/. 9 "Colorado Fuel and Iron Corp.," Lehman Brothers Collection, accessed January 22, 2014, http://www.library.hbs.edu/hc/lehman/company.html?company=colorado_fuel_and_iron_corp. 10 Ibid. 11 "Administrative History of the CF&I Steel Corporation," Rocky Mountain Online Archives, accessed March 11, 2014, http://rmoa.unm.edu/docviewer.php?docId=CFI_Archives_OverviewRMOA.xml#id2929077. 12 "Colorado Fuel and Iron," Lehman Brothers Collection. 13 "Overview of the CF&I Steel Corporation Records," Rocky Mountain Online Archive, accessed January 24, 2014, http://rmoa.unm.edu/docviewer.php?docId=CFI_Archives_OverviewRMOA.xml#id2929077. 14 Dawn Di Prince, "Colorado Coal Field Wars (1913-1914)" (lecture, Pueblo West High School, January 7, 2014). 15 Richard J. Clyne, Coal People: Life in Southern Colorado's Company Towns, 1890-1930 (Denver, CO: Colorado Historical Society, 1999), 23. 16 Prince, "Colorado Coal Field Wars." 17 Ibid. 18 Dean J. Saitta, "History and Legacy of the Ludlow Massacre," last modified December 2001, PDF. 19 "1914: The Ludlow massacre," Libcom, accessed January 24, 2014, http://libcom.org/history/1914-the-ludlow-massacre. 20 "The Ludlow Massacre," American Experience, accessed April 2, 2014, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/rockefellers-ludlow/. 21 "The Ludlow Massacre," Western History and Genealogy, last modified September 16, 2013, accessed April 10, 2014, http://history.denverlibrary.org/content/ludlow-massacre. 22 Zeese Papanikolas, Buried Unsung: Louis Tikas and the Ludlow Massacre (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1991), 46. 23 Montoya, interview by the author. 24 Howard Zinn and Anthony Arnove, Voices of a People's History of the United States (New York, NY: Seven Stories Press, 2011), 278. 25 Walter H. Fink, The Ludlow Massacre (1914), 77. 26 "Historical Foreword," CBA, last modified 2003, accessed March 12, 2014, http://www.cobar.org/index.cfm/ID/581/dpwfp/Historical-Foreward-and-Bibliography/. 28 Zinn and Arnove, Voices of a People's, 278. 29 Prince, "Colorado Coal Field Wars." 30 Ibid 31 Ibid 32 Martelle, Blood Passion: The Ludlow, 124. 33 Congressional Committee, The Military Occupation of the Coal Strike Zone of Colorado by the National Guard (1913-1914), 1914 (Colo. 1914). 34 "In the Hot Seat: Rockefeller Testifies on Ludlow," History Matters, accessed April 11, 2014, http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5735/. 35 "Timeline," The Colorado Coalfield War Archaeological Project, accessed January 25, 2014, http://www.du.edu/ludlow/timeline_000.html. 36 "Gov. Ammons Withdraws All Troops From Coal Fields," Daily Journal (Telluride, CO), February 27, 1914, Front Page, 1. 37 "Timeline," The Colorado Coalfield War Archaeological Project. 38 Papanikolas, Buried Unsung: Louis Tikas, 216. 39 Martelle, Scott. Blood Passion: The Ludlow Massacre and Class War in the American West. Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1958. 40 "The Ludlow Massacre," American Experience. 41 "The Archaeology of the 1913-14 Colorado Coal Field War Project," Colorado Coal Field War Project, accessed January 21, 2014, http://www.du.edu/ludlow/cfarch.html. 42 "Woman's Peace Conference Reports on Ludlow Horror and Demand Many Things," Fort Collins Weekly Courier (Fort Collins, CO), May 8, 1914, Front Page, 1. 43 Johnathan H. Rees, Representation and Rebellion: The Rockefeller Plan at the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, 1914-1942 (Boulder, CO: University Press of Colorado, 2010), 1640. 44 Congressional Committee, The Military Occupation of the Coal Strike Zone of Colorado by the National Guard (1913-1914), 1914 (Colo. 1914). 45 "First Shots Come from Militia at Ludlow," Aspen Democrat-Times (Aspen, CO), December 11, 1914, 1. 46 Ibid. 47 "The Ludlow Massacre," American Experience. 48 "A History of the Colorado Coal Field War," Colorado Coal Field War Project, accessed January 21, 2014, http://www.du.edu/ludlow/cfhist.html. 49 "3500 Wyoming Miners Signify Willingness," Aspen Democrat-Times (Aspen, CO), April 24, 1914, Front Page, 1. 50 "Ammons Asks Troops," Wet Mountain Tribune (Westcliffe, CO), May 1, 1914, 1. 52 "The Ludlow Massacre," American Experience. 53 "Hold Rockefeller at Fault in Strike," New York Times (New York, NY), August 28, 1915, 1. 54 "Protest Against Ludlow Massacre," Brandon Bell (Brandon, CO), May 1, 1914 55 John D. 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(1935). 65 Brian Bain, "The NLRB: The Wagner Act of 1935," University of Saint Francis, last modified 2002, accessed February 16, 2014, http://www.stfrancis.edu/content/ba/ghkickul/stuwebs/btopics/works/wagner.htm. 66 "Labor History Timeline," AFL-CIO, accessed January 26, 2014, http://www.aflcio.org/About/Our-History/Labor-History-Timeline. 67 Rees, Representation and Rebellion: The Rockefeller, 193. 68 Department of the Interior, National Park Service, National Historic Landmark Nomination: Ludlow Tent Colony Site, Doc. (2008). 69 "The Ludlow Massacre," UMWA, accessed March 11, 2014, http://www.umwa.org/?q=content/ludlow-massacre. 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