Reason why the source is non-functional or not in use (improved sources only)

For the improved sources, they are either not in use or are non-functional mainly because they are under construction or have technical breakdowns.

The study further sought to find out the reasons as to why non-functional ones had not been repaired and these were the responses:

Why not repaired (point sources)

Few non-functional water points are not repaired due management/ownership problems

Majority of the piped water supply systems are functional and in use

Technical breakdown, cheaper sources and new under construction equally contribute to the non-functionality or not-in-use status of the improved sources.

Half of these points are unrepaired because of issues relating to spare parts

On the face of it, water supply from available water points is above average. For example, when asked about the reliability of the water sources, these were the responses:

For rural water points:

Close to a half of rural water points are seasonal

More than half of respondents reported that the water supply is insufficient for livestock. Owing to the importance associated to water for livestock in this area, this a serious concern

Quite some time is taken up in search of water per trip as indicated below

In respect to rural points.
Time Water Collection (on average) (Note: time to and fro, including waiting time)


In respect to piped points:

Time taken for Water Collection (on average) (Note: time to and fro, including waiting time)

People apparently take longer to access water from piped schemes which would point at how these schemes are stressed. We sought to interrogate this phenomenon further.

Management structures of water points were varied as much as they were interesting. For example at the visited place at Shauri Yako, the kiosk is run by a women group. This group has not held elections for 12 years. Each household is charged Kshs 200 per month for water and funds realized are not publicly declared. However, community members reported that whenever there is a breakdown, repairs are always done promptly to avoid public backlash and loss of revenue.

Management structures are in place for most rural water points

Majority of the management committees hold regular meetings

By-laws are in place for most of the committees

Close to half of the officials of the committees are select as per by-laws

More than half of the public meetings have income and expenditure

More than half of the committees had AGMs with their members

And in regards to piped schemes, these were the responses:

Committee in place?

Most piped water schemes have committees in place

A large percentage of the committees hold regular meetings

Majority of these commitees have by-laws in place

A small section of the committees don’t select officials as per by-laws

Majority of the committees don’t have public meeting income and expenditure

A large majority of these committees have AGMs with all members

The water quality analysis parameters were compared to the WHO and KEBS guidelines to ascertain if the quality of the water were in accordance with appropriate drinking water standards. The results per water point by region are as shown in the table below.

Microbiological water quality results show that the water is grossly polluted with faecal matter. In terms of faecal coliforms (ecoli), the results show that approximately 66% of the water sources tested during the study did not meet either the WHO or any National standards for drinking water. Laisamis/Loiyangalani water points had the highest number of water points contaminated with 91.7% of all sampled water points showing high levels of E. coli. This was closely followed by Marsabit/Chalbi with 83.3% of water points contaminated. 91% of tap water and 58% of the wells were contaminated while interestingly results from the entire (2) borehole sampled for water sampling and testing had been contaminated with the contamination ranging from 30 – 130 E. coli/100mls.

The quality of water has a direct relationship with the environmental surrounding of the water sources. To be able to compare the quality of the sample sources with the water testing results, sanitary observation survey was carried out at the time of the sampling and supported with the Ministry of Health data on sanitation coverage. Overall the environmental sanitation in most of the water points was poor coupled with low sanitation (latrine) coverage. For example latrine coverage data for North Horr stood at 12% (MoH latrine coverage report, May 2012). This means that more than 87% of the population lack an appropriate faecal disposal mechanism and hence use open defecation, a risk to environmental sanitation and hence bacteriological contamination of water.

The study sought to investigate chemical composition of some water points. From the area, nine water points we sampled and brought for analysis at Kenya Water Institute (KEWI). These samples were drawn from the following areas:

1. 
   Bamata Dam
   
2. 
   Huri Hills
   
3. 
   Holale Shallow wells in Moyale
   
4. 
   North Horr police lines
   
5. 
   Kalacha shallow wells
   
6. 
   Kargi Town Shallow wells
   
7. 
   Maikona town shallow well
   
8. 
   Kinisa Pan
   
9. 
   Burgabo Borehole, in Chalbi Desert.
   

It is instructive to note that the samples were not tested for potassium, sodium and heavy metals. Considering that there have been some reported livestock deaths and a significantly high cases of cancer in some areas like Kargi, a further investigation could be necessary at some point.

The levels of contaminations for all the contaminated water points are way above both the WHO and KEBS drinking water quality standards at zero (0) ecoli/100ml of sample. North Horr district has a high water table, high concentration of shallow wells and low sanitation coverage. The lack of sanitation facilities in the area could therefore be attributed to the high contamination of water point’s especially shallow wells. This points to the need for a continued monitoring of the water points through regular sampling and testing to ascertain the change in quality of the water with time.

1. 
   The level of investment through the government has been low with Non Governmental Organizations and Churches doing a disproportionate portion of investments and rehabilitation of water points. The notable heavy investment in water in the County by the government is the Badasa dam, whose construction needs to be speeded up.
   

2. 
   Whereas citizens have displayed a willingness to pay for the water they consume in most cases, the funds collected in many instances can only cover management and routine repairs. These funds are not likely to be enough for capital expenditures like generator replacement and repairs. Some of the bigger rehabilitation works for community schemes can therefore be done through government funds. But there are indications that if funds are collected well and transparently they would be enough to support most schemes.
   

3. 
   Although the majority of the points mapped are improved, many of these points are susceptible to contamination since they are shallow wells. On an average the hygiene and sanitation conditions observed around water points, whether improved or unimproved, were poor.
   

4. 
   Whereas water access for domestic use is above average and for livestock just below average, the distribution of water is not facilitative for livelihoods and economic growth. Many water points are clustered and within settlement areas, leaving large swathes of land unutilized. Even within the settlement areas, time taken to access water is too long, with most of the population spending more than an hour per round trip to fetch water from point sources.
   

5. 
   Water quality is quite poor with 66% of sampled water showing contamination. Most of the water points were not only contaminated but heavily so by national and international standards. Chemical analysis at KEWI also showed that all water points sampled needed treatment before consumption. This correlates with observed poor hygiene conditions, as well as with sanitation coverage, which in some districts like Chalbi (Marsabit North), stands at 12%.
   

6. 
   Functionality of water points was relatively high. Functionality of piped schemes was much higher, which may point at better technical support. The same support can be exported/ devolved to lower levels to support community managed points.
   

7. 
   Knowledge of the water sector, water policies and acts, and constitutional provisions in relation to water are very low.
   

8. 
   There is a vibrant citizenry in the County. In many water points, it was reported that there is a management committee in place, which meets regularly. The percentage of groups with by-laws at was also impressive. In some places, Water Users Associations (WUAs) has been formed and trained to manage water points especially through District Water Officers and Non-State Actors although this does not appear to have translated to sound management practices.
   

9. 
   Although there are many Organizations operating in this place, there is little evidence of coordination and harmonization of activities. WESCORD, although making some efforts, is largely dysfunctional. The formal sector (Ministry of Water), has not offered robust leadership in this. Therefore, there is no up to date data base of water points or of interventions that particular organizations are engaged in.
   

10. 
    In most instances, where quasi-governmental institutions shoulder most governmental responsibilities, governmental institutions take the back stage. That is the manifest situation in Marsabit County in relation to water and the situation needs to be reversed.
    

11. 
    In most areas where FGDs were conducted, water was identified as having been a cause of conflict especially in the dry seasons, among communities.
    

12. 
    Water supply can be increased in many areas by desilting the silted dams/ pans, and through getting efficient systems of pumping water from boreholes to enable longer pumping hours with fewer/ more manageable breakdowns like solar systems.
    

1. 
   The government needs to take charge as the lead actor in Marsabit County and as such more resources should be availed for Marsabit County. Funds can be made available through Ministry of Water, through Equalization Fund and most significantly, through dedicated allocation of resources to water through County Budget. Citizens can play a key role by identifying this as a priority sector and engaging County governments to allocate resources accordingly.
   

2. 
   Marsabit is the second largest County in Kenya, hosting many development partners, yet it lacks basic infrastructure and does not have a Water and Sewerage Company. This in a way, is systematic marginalization and one of the first priorities of the County Government should be to set-up a proper water and sewerage company. Such a company will support proper planning especially for sewerage for Marsabit Town which is showing signs of economic take-off. The Company can also take over overall management of smaller companies and schemes, which have proven unviable to run and manage.
   

3. 
   The role of government officers in water needs to be redefined. With quite a substantial investment being done by non-state actors and communities, government officers should be available and accessible to support with repairs and maintenance, as well as in demonstrating the best ways to harvest water. In effect, their role should be to provide extension services in water.
   

4. 
   Although WARMA is doing some conservation work with WRUAs, environmental conservation has not been mainstreamed. This is evidenced through drying up of springs and diminishing levels of water in Lakes such as Lake Paradise. Urgent mechanisms need to be put in place to arrest this situation and promote water recharge even for boreholes.
   

5. 
   Water quality is a grave issue in this area. A water surveillance mechanism needs to be put in place for systematic sampling and analysis so that contamination can be detected and contained in good time. The County Government either separately or as a section of Water and Sewerage Company, needs to set-up a testing lab in the County where samples can be tested. Non State Actors also need to shift some attention from water access to water quality and sanitation. The Public Health Office needs to coordinate sanitation approaches and distribution of treatment chemicals. Appropriate approaches that have worked in other areas like Community Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) need to be introduced. Water purification options and gadgets, especially those that use solar, should be explored. It may also be necessary to conduct a dedicated water quality analysis study in the County to determine the exact patterns of contamination and how this may have affected human health and the implications of long term usage of this water.
   

6. 
   Since most schemes and systems are community managed, there is an opportunity for more training and strengthening of Water Users Associations (WUAs) to manage water points more economically. Funds realized can be used for simple repairs, simple water treatment, and piping to communal water points as a start.
   

7. 
   There is need for aggressive citizen education especially in the Water Policy and Water Bill and provisions for participation. It is not possible to have demand driven change when citizens are unaware of their rights, obligations, and opportunities that abound. In particular citizens need to become aware of how they can work through County Government to exploit and push for higher resource allocation to the sectors that matter most to them. They also need to understand how they can utilize opportunities like Community Planning Cycle (CPC) and Urban Planning Cycle (UPC) through Water Services Trust Fund (WSTF). Communities can also form community watchdog mechanisms like Water Action Groups (WAGs) and Water Working Groups (WWGs) which are working very well in places like Mombasa, to monitor projects, hold government institutions to accountability, and educate Citizens/ Consumers on various issues. There should also be a County Forum to meet on regular basis where the County Government and its Water Service Provider (s) can report to citizens on plans and progress in realization of the right to water.
   

8. 
   Marsabit is a land of huge untapped potential, and can support cultivation as well as in livestock production. An example of Marsabit’s agricultural potential is the miraa crop (khat), which does not do well in many places, but which has flourished here in some pockets of Marsabit Central. Some thinking needs to begin happening around how water from the many small points can be aggregated and piped further from settlements, to enable the more explorative citizens begin utilizing idle land for agriculture.
   

9. 
   Water storage at household level should be promoted and supported. Even in areas where water supply is not so stressed like parts of Loiyangalani and North Horr, lots of households still spend huge amounts of time and resources because of the lack of tendency/ inability to store water.
   

10. 
    Investments in water in the County need to be profiled and consolidated to avoid duplication, and investments in areas that are not really in need for example the some boreholes sunk by the Ministry which has not been equipped to date since the areas there are sited are not really water stressed. There needs to be a central place for data aggregation. The data in the virtual map developed out of this exercise can serve as an initial database, updated either continuously or annually. Overtime, citizens can begin to play a key role, providing information on functionality and quality among others through online mechanisms. The Ministry of Water recognizes its shortcomings, but attributes part of this to the fact that partners do not share lots of their data. The capacity of the relevant Ministry and the County Government should be developed such that they can maintain and update a central database. The incoming County Government can play a key role in this.
    

11. 
    Public Private Partnerships need to be encouraged to consolidate efforts around areas of greatest need. For example, when funds are limited, the government can drill a borehole and partner with Non-State Actors for equipping or extending piping; or vice versa.
    

12. 
    Coordination among various stakeholders in the Water Sector starting from the relevant Ministry, are both inadequate and inefficient. Whereas devolution to Counties must happen meaningfully, it is important to keep vigil in the Policy development process to ensure that related functions are merged/ integrated. Information flow should also be enhanced and this can be done through the proposed ASAL Secretariat.
    

Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 2002. ‘Substantive Issues Arising in the Implementation of The International Covenant On Economic, Social And Cultural Rights’. Retrieved from

J. Bartram and G. Howard, “Domestic water quantity, service level and health: what should be the goal for water and health sectors”, WHO, 2002.

Kenya Water for Health Organization (KWAHO), 2009. ‘Enhancing Water and Sanitation Governance in Kenya: Human Rights Based Approach to Reforms in the Kenya Water Sector’. Retrieved from http://www.kwaho.org/documents/UNDP_Water_Governance_HRBA_Bondo_Consultancy_TOR_Capacity_of_Water_Actors.pdf

Michael Mortimore, 2009. ‘Dryland Opportunities: A New Paradigm for People, Ecosystems and Development’

P.H. Gleick, (1996) “Basic water requirements for human activities: meeting basic needs”, Water International, 21, pp. 83-92.

Republic Of Kenya, 2011. ‘Vision 2030 Development Strategy for Northern Kenya and other Arid Lands’. Retrieved from http://typo3.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/drought/docs/Vision2030%20development%20strategy%20for%20northern%20kenya%20and%20other%20dry%20areas%202011%20.pdf

Republic of Kenya, 2011. ‘National Policy for the Sustainable Development of Northern Kenya and other Arid Lands: Releasing Our Full Potential’. Retrieved from http://www.dmikenya.or.ke/call_for_proposals/Draft%20Sessional%20Paper%20for%20ASAL.pdf

Republic Of Kenya, 2011. ‘Vision 2030 Development Strategy for Northern Kenya and other Arid Lands’. Retrieved from http://www.aridland.go.ke/ministry_docs/vision2030_draft3.pdf

Republic of Kenya, 2009. ‘National Policy for the Sustainable Development of Arid and Semi Arid Lands of Kenya’. Retrieved from http://www.aridland.go.ke/ministry_docs/ASAL_policy.pdf

UN, 2003. ‘Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, General Comment 15, The right to water (Twenty-ninth session, 2003), U.N. Doc. E/C.12/2002/11 (2002), reprinted in Compilation of General Comments and General Recommendations Adopted by Human Rights Treaty Bodies, U.N. Doc. HRI/GEN/1/Rev.6 at 105 (2003)’. Retrieved from http://umn.edu/humanrts/gencomm/escgencom15.htm

8.0 ANNEXES

8.1 Marsabit water points map

http://goo.gl/maps/AnoFl


8.2 Sample of the chemical analysis: Results


8.3 Questionnaires
(Attached)

8.4 List of water points mapped
(Attached)