13. Chapter 13
Ferdinand de Saussure (1916) Form and Substance Basic elements of Saussure's theory -
Form: an abstract formal set of relations
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Substance: sounds or written symbols
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Word: the union of signified and signifier
Phonetic segments (speech sounds) are elements that have no meaning in themselves. They have, however, non-semantic and non-grammatical rules of combination etc.
Meaningful combinations
Meaningless elements (phonetic segments) can combine to form meaningful entities. i.e. words, which are combinations of phonetic segments (or of phonemes) are meaningful.
Arbitrary relationship between the Meaningless and the Meaningful
The relationships between the meaningless elements (phonetic segments) and meaningful combinations of those elements (words) are arbitrary.
Summary of Aspects of Saussure's Theory -
Sounds are meaningless.
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Within a language individual sounds or combinations of sounds have meaning.
eg. /dɔɡ/ in English has a meaning.
In another language this combination of sounds may have no meaning, or if it does have a meaning then it will almost certainly have a different meaning to its meaning in English. e.g. /ɑe/ is an example of a single phoneme in English which has a meaning (actually more than one meaning, "I", "eye" and "aye").
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Each language has an inventory of sounds. These sounds are selected from the range of possible sounds that humans can produce. Each language has its own inventory which is different from the inventories of most other languages.
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Each language has its own set of distinct rules for the combination of sounds, or phonotactic rules. These rules vary greatly from language to language.
e.g. final stop and fricative sounds must be voiceless in German but can be voiced or voiceless in English. E.g. [ŋ] can occur initially and finally in some languages, but in English can only occur syllable finally.
Some questions relating to Saussure's Theory -
What are the BASIC UNITS of phonology? sounds or something larger (e.g. syllable) or smaller (e.g. phonetic feature)
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What are the PRINCIPLES OF ORGANISATION controlling the units?
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How much abstraction is required for adequate description?
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Should phonological theory be "psychologically real"?
14. Chapter 14
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES Trubetzkoy (1939) Prague School of Linguistics
A group of > 2 sounds which share common features e.g. labial obstruents == /p,b,f,v/
Bilateral oppositions
A pair sounds that share a set of features which no other sound shares fully
e.g. voiceless labial obstruents == /p,f/
The relationship between two sounds is the same as the relationship between one or more other pairs of sounds e.g. /p/ is to /b/ as /t/ is to /d/ or /k/ is to /ɡ/, that is the difference between each pair is related to one feature, voicing.
Therefore the proportions p:b = t:d = k:ɡ
Isolated relationship
No other segment pairs stand in the same relation as a particular member pair of an opposition. eg. /l/ and /r/ in English
One member of a pair of sounds possesses a mark, or feature, which the other lacks. Such features are also known as binary features which a sound either possesses or lacks.
eg. Voicing is such a feature. A sound is voiced or NOT voiced. The sound which possesses that feature is said to be marked (eg [+voice]) whilst the sound lacking the feature is unmarked (eg. [-voice]).
eg. vowel height is privative in some languages where there are only high and low vowels. The vowels may be said to have or lack the feature [high] (ie. [+high] vs [-high]). Alternatively, they may be said to have or lack the feature [low] (ie. [+low] vs [-low]). This is true for Turkish vowels where, for example, /u/ and /o/ can be said to be [+high] and [-high] respectively.
Gradual Oppositions
Where the members of a class of sounds possess different degrees or gradations of a feature or property.
eg. there are three short front unrounded vowels in English which are distinguished by their height, /ɪ, e, æ/. In this system /ɪ/ and /e/, for example, can be said to be in gradual opposition.
Equipollent Oppositions
The relationship between two members of an opposition are considered to be logically equivalent. That is the difference between them is not due to either a privative or a gradual opposition. eg. Consonant place of articulation can be seen in this sense. Changes in place involve not just degree of fronting but also involve other articulator changes.
eg. [bilabial] involves two lips, [labiodental] involves the bottom lip and the top teeth, [dental] involves the tongue tip and the teeth, [alveolar] involves the tongue tip ant the alveolar ridge, [velar] involves the tongue body and the soft palate.
Constant Oppositions
When two members of an opposition can occur in all positions they are said to be in constant opposition. eg. English: /m/ and /n/ can occur in all of the same positions
/snV.../ and /smV.../
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"snow" and "smoke"
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/nV.../ and /mV.../
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"night" and "might"
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/...Vn/ and /...Vm/
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"hone" and "home"
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etc...
| Neutralisable Oppositions
When two members of an opposition are in opposition in some positions but only one can occur in one or more other positions.
eg. English:-
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/n/ and /ŋ/ are in opposition at the end of a syllable, but not at the beginning of a syllable. /sɪn/ and /sɪŋ/ are possible, but only /n/ can occur initially.
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/p/ and /b/ can occur in almost all of the same portions but are neutralised at the beginning of a syllable following /s/.eg. /spɪn/ but not /sbɪn/. Note, however, that the allophone of /p/ used here is usually identical to the allophone of /b/ in a word such as /bɪn/.
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