Anbookstore com Copyright 2013

Das, Veena, 9

ecentralization policy, and naming/renaming places, 12, 32, 33, 51–52, 59

ecolonization period, 66–68, 210n11

e Lame, Danielle, 208n11

emocracy, 13, 86–87, 91, 94, 105, 110, 166, 178

Democratic Republic of the Congo (Congo, DRC or Zaïre). See Zaïre (Democratic Republic of the

Congo, Congo, or DRC)

enunciations: during colonial period, 61; gacaca court and, 115, 121, 162, 168, 170–73; national unity

practices and, 111, 115–16, 119; by RPF, 21, 92, 116; violence as continuum and, 92, 97

Des Forges, Alison, 16, 19, 208n11

estitute or umutindi (pl. abatindi), 7, 10, 16, 17, 35, 139–40

etention (cachot), 5, 112, 150, 152–53, 181

Didier (pseud.), 52, 78, 140, 169–70, 201–2, 210n2

isappeared, 84, 90, 98, 110–11, 114, 128–29, 172

isgrace, 61–62, 162–63

isindividuation (individual or private realities as sacrificed), 8, 10–11, 52

isplacement camps (internally displaced persons camps), 31–32, 78, 97, 103

issent, repression of political, 13, 15, 85, 113

istricts, 121, 208n7

ivisionism, 12–13, 51, 110, 112–13, 124, 147

ocile and obedient peasants discourse by elite. See obedient and docile peasants discourse by elite

omination and resistance discourse, 12–13, 189–90

DRC (Democratic Republic of the Congo, Congo, or Zaïre). See Zaïre (Democratic Republic of the

Congo, Congo, or DRC)


astern Rwanda, 32, 33, 97, 134. See also specific towns

conomics: financial support for RPF and, 89–90; Rwandan, 11–13, 73–74, 85–86

ducation system and achievement, 12, 69–70, 72, 120, 212n9

lections: for gacaca judges, 141, 167, 169; for local government officials, 121, 123, 141–42, 163, 164,

213n3; presidential, 208n9

lites (political elites): overview of, 49–50, 74–75; chiefs as appointed during colonial period and, 62–

66; corruption accusations against, 113; covered shoes regulation and, 163, 178; decolonization and,

66–68, 210n11; ethnic identity during precolonial period and, 57–59; ethnic identity manipulation and,

7, 17, 51, 56, 65, 69, 71–73, 81, 184; ethnic unity as historically false and, 54, 60–61, 184; Hamitic

myth and, 56–57; historical context for ethnic divisions and, 52–53; Hutu and Tutsi relations during

postindependence period and, 71; Hutu in context of genocide ideology and, 113; knowledge or

knowledge production and, 14; leadership as cause for 1994 genocide and, 50–51, 74; leadership plans

for 1994 genocide, 50–51, 74, 80; leader’s plans for 1994 genocide and, 74; national unity practices

and, 107–8; 1994 genocide plans by, 50–51, 80; patron-client practice and, 24, 49, 55, 59, 61–62, 64–

66, 69, 88; politicization of ethnicity and, 60–62; politics in royal court during precolonial period and,

60–62; power relations and, 192–93; scholarship on survivors and, 20–23; Social Revolution (1959–

62) and, 52, 69, 72, 75, 83–84, 88, 131; socioeconomic structure and, 11–12; sociopolitical structure





during precolonial period and, 54–56; state power and politicization of identity during precolonial

period and, 59–62, 210nn6–7; state power as lived experience and, 11–12; Tutsi elites in precolonial

period, 27, 56, 210n5; urban, 11, 17, 141, 143, 171. See also obedient and docile peasants discourse by

elite; postindependence period (1962–90); state power as lived experience; structural violence

mergency period (1994–2000), 95–98. See also national unity practices; Rwandan Patriotic Front

(RPF); violence as continuum

mmanuel (pseud.), 52–53, 118, 174, 200

phrem (pseud.), 87–88, 138, 200

spérance (pseud.), 37, 140, 154, 179–82, 200

sther (pseud.), 151–52, 171, 200–201

thnic Hutu. See Hutu/ethnic Hutu

thnicity and ethnic identity: overview of, 74–75; clans and, 35, 50, 56; discussion silenced about, 108,

113–15; distinctions as fluid during precolonial period and, 57–59; divisions as cause for 1994

genocide and, 50; divisions as historically false and, 7, 50–51, 55–56, 58–59, 81–84, 98, 184; ethnic

equality measures during postindependence period and, 71–73; historical context for, 52–55; identity

cards and, 69, 71–73; as imposed by state, 6–7, 208n8; manipulation of, 7, 17, 51, 56, 65, 69, 71–73,

81, 184; marginalization practice and, 48, 54, 57, 76, 78, 129–30, 147; occupational differences and,

50, 55; patron-client practices and, 66; politicization of, 60–62; politicization of ethnic terms during

precolonial period and, 60–62; RPF membership in context of, 88; Rwandan identity versus, 17, 108,

113–15; sampling method and, 36; socioeconomic structure in historic context and, 50; violence

during postgenocide period and, 104–5; violence during postindependence period and, 70. See also

Hutu/ethnic Hutu; “one Rwanda for all Rwandans”; Tutsi/ethnic Tutsi; Twa/ethnic Twa; unity among

ethnic groups

thnographies, 13–16, 183. See also methods and research

events of 1994” (événements de 1994) or “in 1994” (en 1994) as terms of use for 1994 genocide, 82

veryday resistance to national unity practices: overview of, 7–9, 14–16, 23–25, 127–31, 158–59, 183,

188, 191, 212n2; agency and, 130–34; authoritarianism in context of, 151; avoidance of local officials

as, 111–12, 128–29, 147–49; conceptualization of, 131–34; discussion of violence as silenced by RPF

and, 16; domination and resistance in context of, 189–91; fearless individuals and, 4, 146, 186, 206;

fool or foolish individuals and, 4, 128, 146, 186; gacaca court and, 145, 163–65, 175–82; hardships

protestations in gacaca court, 179–82; irreverent compliance and, 9, 146, 150–55; land policy and,

144, 179–81; lies in context of peasants’ everyday lives and, 25; local defense forces’

misappropriation of livestock and, 145; media in context of state control of public information and,

152; mental tactics versus, 145–46, 212n4; open defiance or speaking out and, 146; oppression in

peasants’ everyday life and, 146; participants and, 5–6; power relations and, 192–93; as prepolitical

acts, 191; qualities needed for, 129–30, 132, 133, 165; scholarship on acts of resistance and, 131–32,

212n2; socioeconomic structure in context of, 134–45, 149–50, 212n3; speaking out against RPF

excesses in gacaca court and, 175–79; staying on the sidelines and, 9, 127–28, 146–50; surveillance by

government and, 7–8; survivors’ organization mismanagement and, 145; by those with deep-rooted

principles, 146, 206, 212n5; Tutsi survivors in gacaca court and, 165, 175–82; Twa civil society

organizations and, 147; withdrawn muteness and, 9, 146, 155–58. See also national unity practices;

state power as lived experience

ARG (Fonds d’assistance aux rescapés du génocide or Genocide Survivors Assistance Fund), 129–30,

212n1

ear and insecurity: during colonial period, 63, 65; continuum of violence (1990–2000) and, 18, 39, 85,

postindependence period, 68–69; during precolonial period, 61–62

earless or icyihebe (pl. ibyihebe), 4, 146, 186, 206

élicien (pseud.), 77, 78, 157, 171, 202

eld notes, 26–27. See also methods and research

lorence (pseud.), 148, 201

onds d’assistance aux rescapés du génocide (FARG or Genocide Survivors Assistance Fund), 129–30,

212n1

ool/foolish or umusazi (pl. abasazi), 4, 128, 146, 186

orces armées rwandaises (FAR), 20, 82, 87, 90, 97, 102–3, 212n10

orgiveness by Tutsi, and national unity practices, 47–48, 114, 121, 133, 138, 148, 167, 173–74

rance: 1994 genocide and, 31; political transition period in Rwanda and, 85, 90; postgenocide aid from,

31, 95, 96; Zone turquoise and, 95, 96

ujii, Lee Ann, 18

uture comparative research, 26, 194–95

authoritarianism in context of, 175; Category One killers and, 104, 210n2; centralization processes

and, 166–67; citizen spectators in, 161, 162, 164, 167, 178, 213n2; conceptualization of, 132–34;

confessions and, 35, 115, 156–57, 162, 171, 212n6; culture of impunity and, 160, 209n1; culture of

state and, 162, 164–65; democracy and, 166; denunciations and, 115, 162, 168, 170–73; everyday

resistance in context of, 145, 163–65, 175–82; fear and insecurity promotion through, 161–62, 165,

168, 174–75; gacaca judges and, 51, 120, 141, 162–63, 164, 167, 169–70, 176; Hutu men and, 145,

170–75, 211n3; Hutu-perpetrators in, 170–75, 211n3; Hutu women and, 172–73, 174; imprisonment

and, 47–48, 112, 121; individual compliance with, 164–66, 176; information-gathering stage of, 166,

167; lies versus truth telling in, 180–81; local officials’ role in, 112, 148, 162–63, 164, 213n3; mental

tactics versus everyday resistance in, 145; military police force and, 162–63; Oath of Oneness and,

211n11; “one Rwanda for all Rwandans” and, 162, 163, 175; oppression in peasants’ everyday life

and, 167–69; Organic Law and, 211n5; peace, security, and rehabilitation through, 161–62; prisoners

and, 162; protestation against hardships in, 179–82; public speech boundaries in, 185; Rwandans as

willing participants in, 166; sanctions and, 112, 162, 165, 167–68; scholarship and analysis of, 165–

66; self-sanctioning behavior and, 162, 165, 168; sexual violence and, 166, 173–74; silence of

discussion of violence in 1990s and, 142, 144; speaking out against RPF excesses in, 175–79; state as

idea and, 162; state power and control through, 160–64, 166; state spaces and, 163, 166; surveillance

and, 162, 169, 171, 175; survivors in, 145, 161–62, 167, 170–75, 212n4; as top-down, 166; as truth and

reconciliation strategy, 21–22, 120, 160, 167; truth as told by survivors and, 167, 170, 171, 173–74;

underworld of conduct and ritual in, 161–62; witnesses in, 145, 162, 167, 170–75, 212n4. See also

everyday resistance to national unity practices; national unity practices

acaca judges (inyangamugayo or those who detest disgrace), 51, 120, 141, 162–63, 164, 167, 169–70,

176. See also gacaca court

Geertz, Clifford, 14

énocidaires (perpetrators of genocide), 81, 205, 211n3. See also Hutu-perpetrators or perpetrators of

genocide (génocidaires)

enocide ideology, 13, 51, 75, 83, 113, 124, 148–49, 171–72, 211n5

enocide in 1972, against Hutu in Burundi, 70

enocide in 1994. See 1994 genocide

German colonialism, 16, 50, 61, 62–63

Gikongoro (now Nyamagabe), 134, 154

Gikongoro province, 31–32, 95, 96

Gisenyi (now Rubavu), 33, 34, 85

Gisenyi province, 73, 93–95, 102

Gitarama (now Muhanga), 33, 34, 70, 134, 138

Gitarama province, 32

Gitera, Joseph, 67, 68

overnment administration: overview of, 32, 33, 121, 122, 123, 208n7; centralization during

postindependence period and, 71, 73; corruption and, 12, 69–71, 113; decentralization policy and, 12,

32, 33, 51–52, 59; hierarchy and, 208n7; RPF and, 96–98. See also local government and officials;

national unity practices; Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF); state power as lived experience

overnment surveillance, 7–8, 15, 34–35, 40–42, 162, 169, 171, 175. See also social surveillance

rassroots broad-based support, 166, 187–88

ravesites and burials, 51, 108, 111, 116–17, 144, 151, 152–55

uilt, and 1994 genocide, 84, 115–16; of international community, 84, 102


Habyarimana, Agathe, 73

Habyarimana, Juvénal: Arusha Accords and, 90–91, 94; authoritarianism and, 15, 87; civilian killings

and, 93–94; civil war (1990–94) and, 19, 74, 90–94; community or public work projects under, 71–72;

corruption reduction under, 71; coup d’é tat by, 70–71, 210n13; culture of violence and, 92–93; death

in place crash and, 18, 80; democracy and, 86–87; economic decline under, 73–74; education system

under, 72; elite Hutu and Tutsi relations in early postindependence period, 71; ethnic divisions as

historically false and, 50–51; ethnic equality measures in early postindependence period under, 71–73;

ethnic identity cards under, 71; ethnic violence reduction under, 71; Hamitic myth and, 71; human

rights violations under, 93; Hutu elites and, 68–69, 70, 71, 73; inner circle of power under, 73–74, 87,

113, 205; local officials as familiar with peasants’ everyday lives under, 142–43, 186–87; media in

context of state control of public information and, 90–92; physical violence under, 91–93; political

parties and, 71, 86, 210n7; political transition period and, 85–87, 91–95; postindependence period

under rule of, 70–74, 210n13; RPF talks with, 87; scholarship on genocide motives and, 19;

sociopolitical exclusion of Hutu moderates under, 48; state centralization under, 71, 73; surveillance

by government under, 124; top-down policies and, 71, 193; Tutsi’s sociopolitical exclusion and, 48,

71–73; Tutsi suffering during 1962–73 and, 68–70. See also civil war (1990–94)

Hamitic myth, 56–57, 71

Hatzfeld, Jean, 20–21

HIV/AIDS, 39, 124–25

omesteads, 30, 31, 69, 103, 208n1

ouse (inzu), 61, 206, 209n3





HRC (Human Rights Commission), 23

HRW (Human Rights Watch), 19–20, 208n1

uman rights, 93, 97, 104, 110, 124–25, 194

Human Rights Commission (HRC), 23

Human Rights Watch (HRW), 19–20, 208n1

unger, and socioeconomic structure, 136–37

Hutu/ethnic Hutu: overview and definition of, 208n8; Arusha Accords in context of elite, 80; avoidance

of officials by female, 147–48; chiefs as appointed during colonial period and, 62–66; civilian killings

and, 20, 48, 76, 78, 80–82, 95, 97, 104, 171; civil society organizations and, 125; clans and, 35, 50, 56;

confessions in context of national unity practices and, 35, 115, 156–57, 162, 171, 212n6;

decolonization and, 66–68; denouncements by male, 171; division of labor and, 138; education system

and, 69–70, 72; education system and achievement for, 69–70, 72; elite leadership in postcolonial

period as cause for violence of, 50–51, 74; elites’ plans for 1994 genocide and, 50–51, 74, 80; ethnic

conflicts during postgenocide period and, 104–5; ethnic divisions as historically false and, 7, 50–51,

55–56, 58–59, 81–84, 98, 184; ethnic identity cards for, 69; ethnic identity during precolonial period

and, 57–59; ethnic relations and, 47, 71–72, 80–81, 82, 99–100; everyday resistance by, 31, 148, 150,

156–57, 156–58; genocide ideology and, 13, 51, 75, 83, 113, 124, 148–49, 171–72, 211n5; under

government surveillance, 171; Habyarimana’s relations with elites and, 68–69, 70, 71, 73; Hamitic

myth and, 56–57; historical context for ethnic divisions and, 52–53; lineages and, 50, 55–56, 73,

209n3; Manifesto of the Bahutu and, 66–67; manual labor for Tutsi chiefs by, 62, 65; men as

witnesses in gacaca court and, 145; mixed relations and motivations for acts during 1994 genocide

and, 80–81, 82; as moderates, 48, 77, 92, 95, 113, 210n2; national anthem as warning by, 119, 212n7;

national mourning week commemorations and, 116–17, 153–54; 1972 genocide in Burundi against,

70; occupational differences and, 50, 55; old-caseload returnees and, 96–97, 104, 211n11; participants

as, 35; political parties and, 86–87; politicization of ethnic terms during precolonial period and, 60–

62; power relations in context of genocide and, 192–93; reeducation camps and, 51, 104, 120;

remarriage and privileges for, 125, 128; repatriation of refugees and, 85, 99, 100–101; RPF’s relations

with elite, 97–98; Rwandan identity versus ethnic identity and, 17; scholarship on genocide and, 20;

sexual violence against female, 81; social class position for, 72–73; Social Revolution (1959–62) and,

52, 69, 72, 75, 83–84, 88, 131; social ties among peasants and, 80; socioeconomic structure in historic

context and, 50; state power and politicization of identity during precolonial period and, 59–62,

210nn6–7; state sociopolitical ideology and, 12–13; as survivors, 116, 125, 127–28, 174; as those with

deep-rooted principles, 212n5; truth telling in context of national unity practices and, 47–48, 84, 111–

12, 114–15, 121, 133, 138, 147–49, 167–68; Tutsi as saved during 1994 genocide by, 21, 77–78;

Uganda refugee camps and, 88; women as witnesses in gacaca court, 172–73

Hutu-perpetrators or perpetrators of genocide (génocidaires): collectivization of guilt and, 84, 115–16;

in gacaca court, 170–75, 211n3; imprisonment and, 76–77, 82–83, 84, 98; national unity practices and,

111, 114, 115, 211n3; simplistic version by RPF of genocide versus individual acts by, 17–21, 79–85,

105–8, 112, 115–18; as term of use, 211n3. See also perpetrators of genocide (génocidaires)

Hutu Power extremists, 18, 80, 91–97, 99–100, 102–3, 106, 114, 211n9

Huye (formerly Butare), 30–31, 32, 33, 34, 70, 77, 134


bipinga or those with deep-rooted principles (sing. igipinga), 146, 206, 212n5

BUKA organization, 30, 170, 210n4

byihebe or fearless (sing. icyihebe), 4, 146, 186, 206





byitso (accomplices), 93

CTR (International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda), 160, 166

cyihebe or fearless (pl. ibyihebe), 4, 146, 186, 206

dentity cards, 69, 71–73

gipinga or one with deep-rooted principles (pl. ibipinga), 146, 206, 212n5

MF (International Monetary Fund), 134, 136

midugudu or villages (sing. umudugudu), 30, 35, 121, 123, 206, 208n1

mihigo (performance) contracts, 41, 72, 110, 123, 142–43, 206, 209n4, 211n2

mprisonment and prisoners. See prisoners and imprisonment

mpunity, culture of, 160, 209n1

mpuzamugambi or youth wing of CDR, 80, 93, 206, 210n3

in 1994” (en 1994) or “events of 1994” (é vénements de 1994) as terms of use for 1994 genocide, 82

ndependence of Rwanda, 67

ndividual acts of genocide versus official version of 1994 genocide, 17–21, 79–85, 105–8, 112, 117–18

ndividual agency: everyday resistance and, 130–34; gacaca court and, 161, 165; peasants’ everyday

lives and, 30, 36; structural violence in context of, 48; violence as continuum in context of, 74, 78, 91,

92

ndividual compliance, with national unity practices, 8, 119–20, 151, 155, 164–66, 176, 183, 189–90

ndividual or private realities as sacrificed (disindividuation), 8, 10–11, 52

nfiltrators (abacengezi), 93, 102–3

nfiltrators or cockroach (inyenzi), 68–70

nformation gathering, 166, 167

nformation-gathering systems, 8, 41–42

nformed consent, and participants, 37–38

ngando (reeducation camp). See national unity practices; reeducation camp (ingando)

ngelaere, Bert, 121, 123, 209n4

n-kind payments to participants, 43

nner circle of power (akazu, lit. little hut), 73–74, 87, 113, 205

nsecurity and fear. See fear and insecurity

nstitute of Research and Dialogue for Peace (IRDP), 23

ntegrated Regional Information Network (IRIN), 81

nterahamwe or youth wing of MRND, 31–32, 80, 93, 97–98, 100, 102, 115, 206, 210n3

nternally displaced persons camps (displacement camps), 31–32, 78, 97, 103

nternational community, and 1994 genocide, 84, 102

nternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR), 160, 166

nternational Monetary Fund (IMF), 134, 136

nterpretation, and research, 44–46

nterpretivism, 13

nterviews, and procedure and protocol, 26–27, 36–44, 209n2. See also life history interviews

nyangamugayo (gacaca judges or those who detest disgrace), 51, 120, 141, 162–63, 164, 167, 169–70,

176. See also gacaca court

nyenzi (cockroach or infiltrator), 68–70

nzu (house), 61, 206, 209n3

RDP (Institute of Research and Dialogue for Peace), 23





RIN (Integrated Regional Information Network), 81

reverent compliance, 9, 146, 150–55

sambu (land ownership system), 60, 206

ssacman, Allen F., 131–32

ssacman, Barbara, 131–32


anvier (pseud.), 143, 152, 201