Call for Reviewers

Martin (1998) discussed the benefits of the integration of drama into the classroom practice as challenging and stimulating students while helping them apply skills from other disciplines. Cooperation and learning teamwork skills were also key reasons for supporting integration of drama into content-area studies. Butler (1989) suggested that using drama helps students in teams improve their higher-level thinking skills. Also, Braund (1999) made a recommendation for the use of dramatic techniques when he discussed the high engagement of students who collaborate on projects. Finally, Kukla (1987) reported that experiences with drama provided students with the opportunity to create meaningful learning situations. By extension, this meaning-making exercise would lead to the development of critical faculties that supported the use of successful communication skills that are necessary in a just society.

Students and teachers are diverse and from different cultural backgrounds and the classrooms in which these students and teachers interact are, essentially, intercultural spaces (Stewart & Bennett, 1972). The cultural symbols that these participants use and value (Dodd, 1992; Porter & Samovar, 1994; Samovar & Porter, 1999; Samovar, Porter, & Jain, 1981) can depict, among other features, basic values, beliefs, attitudes, language, nonverbal communication, norms, rules, activities, time orientation, spatial relations, worldview, social organization, history, personality, material culture, and art (Stephan & Stephan, 1996). Such cultural signs can also relate to a person’s identity. The relationships between culture, race, ethnicity, and identity make a compelling reason to include drama techniques in the teacher-training classroom where all these features of our common humanity intermingle (Jones, 1990; Tatum, 1997).

Paulo Freire’s (1997) assertions that “only dialogue, which requires critical thinking, is also capable of generating critical thinking,” and that “without dialogue there is no communication, and without communication there can be no true education” (p. 73), have a direct relationship with teaching critical reading. This perspective on critical thinking provides a mandate to educators to find means by which students and teachers can communicate effectively, across cultural boundaries, in the classroom. Teachers and students who experience miscommunication with multi-ethnic and language-minority groups can be greatly assisted in experiencing successful dialogue with the help of drama techniques. Since cross-cultural communication challenges usually stem from a need to have shared meaning (Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, & Smith, 1994), demanding a collective sense of what is important and why, the drama-inspired classroom is an ideal laboratory to test and perfect communication techniques that promote a democratic culture.
Using Drama to Structure a Theme

Wilhem and Edmiston (1998) provided an example when drama was used to structure the study of a theme through a sequence of connected drama strategies. In their castle drama study, they wanted to show the teachers how drama could create an integrated curriculum and transform medieval history. The drama structure was also used to help students to think from a historian’s perspective and value the necessity of that world view. The authors mentioned that “Each question provided rich, problem oriented, student centered, integrated and inquiry driven curricular possibilities” (p. 8). In other words, students used critical thinking while they were creating successful communications and improvising democratic responses to their fictive environment. Once the students in the workshop established the castle environment, one of the authors suggested turning the castle into a museum by giving the “expert” role to the students to increase the sustainability of the drama that they were creating. This sharing of power by the teacher was a practical demonstration of the use of equitable roles in a classroom.

The intense involvement of the students in the problem-solving activities that the drama provided led them to experience their potential for making successful communications with other people in the group. Simply by applying their critical thinking, collaborating with the others in the group to reach a consensus about a way to approach a solution to their problem, and then working with each other to negotiate the obstacles that they met along the way to satisfying their needs as players in the drama, the students discovered the unlimited potential for working as a cohesive team. Dialogue led to critical thinking and problem solving.
Drama Is a Way to Open the Door of Our Life

Wilhem and Edmiston (1998) explained ethical imagination within the concept of drama. The authors contend that drama is a way to open the door of our life into others’ lives by connecting them with the meaning of our world. The authors stated that drama is a powerful tool to introduce the dialogic perspective of interacting within challenging conversations. Perry (1970), speaking from the context of higher education, describes the way that students’ knowledge and conceptions progress through their educational experience. He depicted nine positions and then grouped them as four main clusters: dualism, all knowledge is either right or wrong; multiplicity, acknowledgement that there are various means to examine a situation; relativism, consciousness that views rely on interpretations from objective verifications with a diverse possible conclusions being drawn; and commitment within relativism, readiness to have a personal position on issues whereas recognizing that all knowledge and ideas are eventually relative. Working within the dramatic situation students come to realize that a person might take up different positions, from Perry’s perspective, for various time points.

Entwistle and Peterson (2004) conducted research about how gender differences were perceived in terms of considering knowledge as rational and objective rather than intuitive and personal or rationalizing individual points of view rather than looking to integrate another’s standpoint. In the light of this study, drama is an excellent asset to pursue the objectivity of challenging conversations. The work of dramatic play is not to “discover” the right way to look at an issue, but to “uncover” fresh perspectives, explore new points of view, and, in dialogue, forge new ethical understanding (Wilhelm & Edminston, 1998, p. 63). Dramatic play, engaging critical thinking in situations, encourages students and teachers to explore different standpoints in conversation that they encounter in their multicultural classrooms.

Wilhem and Edmiston (1998) demonstrated through their dramatic play on the topic of Columbus and his arrival in the New World that drama led to authentic engagement of the students. They described their observations in these words:

…asking questions and posing problems; seeking and finding information; reading and studying; considering; creating, and interpreting artifacts; wanting to interview community authorities; arguing, taking notes creating poems and songs; playing roles, discussing and debating, connecting past and present, considering issues; analyzing and organizing information; representing and presenting what has been learnt to others; considering and discussing ethical issues and much more. (p. 12)
Student Motivation

Increased motivation of students is a key reason for incorporating drama into the classroom. Various research studies conducted by Smith (1972), Hoyt (1992), and McMaster (1998) support this method of instruction. Smith (1972) and McMaster (1998) both described drama as involving all students, giving students an opportunity to excel, and, most importantly, recognizing that students enjoy doing it. Hoyt (1992) completed research with students on the theme of elephants, integrating drama with reading and writing. The end result for that classroom was that students were able to express their understandings in a different way from the traditional pencil and paper communication.

A major area for teachers to consider when integrating drama, literacy, and a content-area study is the high level of interaction and collaboration of peers. Research conducted by Kukla (1987), McMaster (1998), Bidwell (1990), Albert (1994), and Butler (1989) all refer to the individual self-concept of students being positively affected through the use of drama in the classroom. Students are able to grow individually through the drama experiences and each student is valued in his/her group because they have an important role as a dramatic player. Butler (1989) focused more on group interaction in his study and like the preceding list of authors also praised the integration of drama while having students work in small groups to reinforce social-group skills. Small groups are supportive of each other, guiding and helping all the players in order to have a successful play within the dramatic context. The study of the group work led the author to propose integrating drama into the classroom as a tool to teach social skills. He suggests that teachers need to be open to incorporating drama and have an attitude that students must talk, write, read, and watch together to learn (Butler, 1989). The social benefits of integrating drama into the classroom include the fact that dramatic play supports the development of students’ life-long skills in communication as members of a democratic society.
Radio Serial Drama

This workshop was created to give students a chance to use newspapers and dialogue, combined with their dramatic skills, in the formal reading and writing context. When I found out that most of my preservice teachers were not receiving or reading the daily newspapers, in hard copy or on the Internet, I decided to integrate the use of newspapers in my literacy workshop. Sharing a collection of newspapers with my students, having them choose interesting articles to put in their personal portfolios, and then finding articles to give to each other based on a person’s stated interest or persuasion helped my students develop a practical approach to the inclusion of the daily newspapers in their classroom instructional practices. The collection of articles allowed students to get to know each other as she shared their findings and presented them as gifts to each other when they met for class.

1. Form in groups.

2. Read the newspaper for an article of interest; members may need to combine a few articles to tell one story.

3. Decide on the characters to be scripted in the radio drama.

4. Sketch 3 frames for story: beginning, middle and end.

5. Create a script of 2/3 minutes following the above frames: begin, middle, and end.

6. Rehearse the script for dramatic flow.

7. Record the script on audio tapes.

8. Share the audio recordings and written script with the class.

9. Suggestions for future development i.e. add a scene before or after, put in more events in the present script, add more characters from other articles in the newspaper.

10. Discussion prompts:

• 
  What did you learn from the process?
  
• 
  What will you do in class with your students?
  
• 
  How will you tie this to the standards that are required for your content area?
  
• 
  What do you need to do in order to make this work in a particular grade level?
  
• 
  How does this process support the development of critical literacy, or not?
  
• 
  Comments, questions, concerns, celebrations?
  

Charlie and the Chest’s Talent

By Ashley, Sarah, and Aubrey

Narrator: Charlie Frye goes to the beach during the off-season to relax. Not realizing that it’s a nude beach, Charlie Frye settles down onto the sand when all of a sudden he spots a cedar chest washing ashore. He rushes after it. However, at this exact same time the nude native also sees the chest and runs in the same direction. Labeled on the chest are the words “caution: talent inside.”

Charlie Frye: Yo, man, this talent could really be useful in taking my team to the Super Bowl.

Nudist: No way. I’m a Steelers fan and I’m not letting you have this talent because we are gonna be the champs this year, again, and will lose again, as always.

Chest: “Now, now, don’t argue,” said the cedar chest. We can solve this peacefully. Charlie Frye will get the talent because the Browns need it more than the Steelers. It’s only fair that we try to even out the playing field.

Nudist: Yeah, what now, sucker?

Narrator: Not satisfied with the chest’s conclusion, the nudist grabs the chest and makes a dash for it. Charlie Frye tackles him to the ground and the chest breaks open and Charlie gets the talent, meaning the Browns move on to a Super Bowl victory.

End of Scene

The Ghoul and the Mushroom Cloud

By Josh and Mike

Q: Hey, North Korea! What’s the deal with your nuclear program? Our spy network has found some scary things.

North Korea: Like ghouls?

Q: Uhuhuh. No, like plutonium.

North Korea: Oh, we don’t have any plutonium. There are much more scary things, like Halloween.

Q: Our satellite shows an increase in the radiation levels in your country.

North Korea: Oh, that plutonium. That’s our nuclear power program. That’s it. That’s no nuclear bomb or anything. Pooouuuusssshhh!

Q: Oops! What did you do?

North Korea: Well, at least it wasn’t a ghoul.
Example 3.

The Clash of the Art Collectors

By Dan and Nikki

Narrator: Two curious art collectors moved to the Cleveland Art Museum searching for a piece to add to their collections. They came across a sculpture from the ancient Aztec empire. Tim Ryan the Cleveland yardstick collector immediately fell in love with the piece.

Tim: I love it! It’s fantastic! Wouldn’t you just look at those (details). I have to have it!

Narrator: At the same time, Harriot Ellen, the water spicket collector had a strong interest in the piece.

Harriot: Wow, this piece would go great with my collection of water spickets. This piece reminds me of a huge water spicket.

Tim: Absolutely not! I saw it first and this magnificent yardstick belongs to me!

Harriot: You don’t understand. This piece would be so great with my waterspicket collection. I must have it.

Tim: Water spickets? You would dare to bare this masterpiece of masterpieces by placing it amongst petty water spickets?

Narrator: A museum security guard overhears the argument and walks over and tries to help resolve the situation but he is too late.

Tim: Oh, give me that yardstick!

Harriot: No, it’s mine (so) give it back to me!

Narrator: Two weeks later in the courtroom of Judge Donovan Leech.

Judge Leech: (This case represents) an inability to compromise over what is clearly the finest coat rack to ever grace this country. (In my limited experience) I have no option but to sever it in two and give you each your respective halves.

Harriot: Think of my wonderful carpet. It would be soaked if the piece is split into two.

Tim: How can I possibly measure the length of this object without a ruler?

Narrator: The judge would have none of this, and he ordered that they look to go get the saw.

Tim and Harriot: (sawing noises) No! Stop! No, stop, don’t do it!

Results

This workshop format generated a lot of discussion and interaction in the classroom. Students had to choose their story headlines and then negotiate among themselves about the best storylines for their radio play. Discussion about the development of the storyline that would incorporate ideas generated by the newspaper headlines encouraged the students to use their critical thinking skills. When they found that there were too many ideas going on in any one story, they made a decision to cut out a story idea so they could reach the climax of their drama within the three minutes given for the story to unfold. Negotiation skills were drawn upon and used to serve the creation of the play.

Rehearsal before the taping of the stories allowed the students to identify the actors in their groups. People volunteered to do different characters that were developed in their plays and some students found that they could direct the rehearsal rather than perform a role during the recording of the drama. Such collaborating skills are a direct result of the effective use of problem solving strategies that are generated during the dramatic journey. These democratic ways of thinking are usually available to students when they come into the classroom and need to be further enhanced through the kind of interaction that is called for in artistic productions.

The presentation of the recorded version of the radio plays brought about a new sense of class pride. Those students who are usually too shy to stand up and perform a role in front of a group were very comfortable when the tape recordings were played for the whole class. I encouraged students to shut their eyes while the plays were being shared so that they could use their senses to enjoy the way in which the actors created effects on the tape recording. Some actors were so skillful in their roles that we had to guess the name of the actor who was doing a voice or a special effect. This heightened the excitement that sharing the radio play generated and helped some reluctant students to begin to imagine what kind of success this form of drama would bring to their content-area classrooms. The performance of the radio plays helped the student teachers to make a shift in their understanding of the role of students as active learners who needed a nurturing space in which to develop their artistic and collaboration skills.

Finally, the transcribed tapes allowed the students to reflect on their creative process and the products that were garnered in one session. They began to imagine the ways in which they could extend the workshop writing activity to other sessions (i.e., adding new installments to the storyline, combining scripts so that the characters from different plays got to interact with each other, drawing a storyboard of the plays so that they could express their thinking in another format, or having a staged reading of the plays in a story theater setting with sound effects, costume, and properties to signify character traits and locations for each drama). The students also brainstormed ways in which they could do cross-discipline creations that extended the use of their background knowledge in several content areas.

Discussion

According to Rojcewicz (2001), “Noetic learning requires that our curricula include but move beyond the development and use of the critical term of listener and observers” (p. 103). This form of education encourages the development of all the senses in contrast to the over-intellectual approach that is so common in our public school classrooms. Developing readers who are able to communicate across all the forms of representation that is common to our literacy systems (i.e., reading, writing, listening, dancing, singing, and painting) is important to the enhanced experience of learning. To ensure that students move beyond being on-lookers to the position of the “reflective operator” so that they become “in-lookers,” Rojcewicz suggests that students of music be exposed to improvisational exercise that helps them develop an “aural, analytical, and muscular” approach to learning that is holistic (p. 103). The implications for teachers outside of the music field who engage in this form of instruction include the fact that we must encourage students to document learning/knowing through portfolios that include “writings, audio/video tapes, charts, graphs, or maps” (p. 108). In this process of documentation that represents diverse ways of thinking and communicating the students learn about their thinking and they become active participants in building a democratic environment.

Sharing the learning that is gained from reflecting on the various forms of representing knowledge with others is an important part of the process of developing critical thinkers. It also helps to deepen student reflection and develops community bonding among those who are observing and participating in the process of reading the message behind the final product. Community takes on a new meaning in the critical literacy environment and encourages student teachers to be risk takers in the adventure of building a caring society within their classroom and beyond their school site.

The noetic process that promotes thinking in the subject mater can be enhanced by introducing “philosophical questions, narratives, videos, poem”, according to Rojcewicz (2001, p. 107). Teachers working in this environment can also include activities such as simulations of historical events, role play of scenes including imaginary or real personalities, problem solving, dramas, and case studies. Through these forms of meaning making, teachers promote freedom of thinking, imaginative ways of creating, and the expression of thought that allows the individual to be their own authority. Thinking independently, using critical analytical skills, can then become the foundation of a strong democratic society. Student teachers can have a practical way to teach the process of making decisions about how their students want to be governed and who is worthy of leading the community. These are fundamental principles the leader of a classroom that works to enhance the learner’s intellectual, emotional, and spiritual acumen. As a form of social criticism noetic education allows students to develop in a holistic way that brings mind, body, and spirit to work in an integrated environment. And, most importantly, we know that increasing the “diversity of intellectual perspectives, products, and performance” (Eisner, 1998, cited in Rojcewicz, 2001, p. 112) enhances the pluralistic nature of our democratic society.
Conclusion

Making the teacher and students active participants during learning is the underlying message that drama techniques all set forth. All of the kinesthetic methods for enhancing communication skills can be adapted and used in several grade levels and even content areas. These drama techniques can be a starting point for a “tool-box” for literacy workshops that are used in secondary classrooms across all content areas. Using the radio serial workshop and other dramatic techniques will help students internalize information and improve their critical and higher-level thinking skills. I recommend that teachers try to incorporate these dramatic techniques into their classrooms because it gives students new experiences and opportunities to be successful. Also, I am hopeful that this discussion of the benefits of using an interactive approach to instruction provides a useful resource for teachers interested in exploring and testing new ways of teaching that are guaranteed to be successful.

Working to create an environment that nurtures the sensibility that justice and power are important parts of our society demands that we make our classrooms safe spaces where the practice of democracy is a daily ritual. In this endeavor we can enlist the use of drama techniques because such activities make students excited to learn. Also, it helps them understand difficult concepts, makes learning fun, and it allows teachers to create a classroom community where all students feel safe to be themselves. These important functions of drama techniques are important to make use of at the beginning of the year when students are just getting to know each other. Developing rituals that support the democratic negotiation of situations and builds the trust among class members is indispensable to the success of a critical literacy agenda. Drama involves students and puts them in control of their learning and this can be accomplished through several means including research on a given topic. Drama also gives students the opportunity to showcase their talents and gain new skills. In this process everyone learns that they can grow and learn together while reminding each other to be patient through the process. Using dramatic techniques will also give students memorable experiences and feelings that will remain with them for a lifetime. In this process they will be reminded that dialogue, critical thinking, and the creative imagination are intimately linked.
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