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Almost Inexhaustible Resources

The crisis over Czechoslovakia brought defence matters to a head. In April 1938 a new programme of air development without financial restraints provided for 12,000, later 17,500, planes in two years. On 22 February 1939 production to the limit was allowed. Secret aeroplane works were developed and Arthur Purvis headed a purchasing mission to America which provided 400 planes. As Mowat says, "It was in the strengthening of her air power that the breathing spell afforded by Munich was of supreme value to Great Britain". The government began to borrow (£90m in 1938; £380m in 1939), in addition to increasing defence spending which reached £273m in 1939.

Duff Cooper had been ineffective at the War Office but his successor, Hore Belisha, began to get things changed. Re‑equipping and stockpiling began, including the purchase of Brens from Czechoslovakia, and the limited role of the army was abandoned in January 1939. A BEF of 21 divisions was to be formed ‑ 10 were ready by January 1940. The Territorial Army was to double in size, and conscription was introduced in April 1939. Even the long‑awaited Ministry of Supply appeared the same month. Hoare declared, "I am convinced we could not be defeated in a short war by any knock‑out blow, and that in a long war our almost inexhaustible resources will ensure final victory."

 

Civil Defence



In 1935 talks began at the Home Office, and in 1937 the Air Raid Precautions Act created Civil Defence. After Sir John Anderson was put in charge in October 1938 it expanded to include 11 million people. Two million "Anderson" shelters were provided. Provision for gas attack was made with the production of 38 million gas masks. Plans for evacuation and the hospital service were completed by Elliot at the Health Ministry. Provision was made to move one and three-quarter million children. Land girls, observer corps, auxiliary fire service and Womens Voluntary Service personnel were recruited. The air‑raid warden and rescue services were organised. A system of regional government was created. In January 1939 the National Service Handbook was distributed to every household, and in July 1939 the Civil Defence Act completed initial preparations. It was a meticulous programme, including every aspect of total war. At the time it excited jokes, and some of the preparations were unnecessary. But Britain was to be the first major industrial nation to face prolonged air attack.

THE BRITISH ARMY IN 1939 PART 1

The British army was expected to provide for home defence and for imperial garrisons but not to produce an expeditionary force on the continent of Europe. In May 1940 the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) commanded by General Lord Gort VC had been built up to 394,000 men with 5 Regular and 5 Territorial fighting Divisions on the Belgian frontier where the main German attack was expected. As an alternative to a war of attrition, the Germans had developed the concept of blitzkrieg or ‘lightning war’; an idea first suggested by British military writers. Blitzkrieg relied on rapid penetration on a narrow front by armour and motorised infantry with close air support.


As in 1914, the British Army which went to war in 1939 was a small, long-service force which lacked the great reserves of trained soldiers necessary to bring it up to a size equal to those of its continental allies or enemies. Its main reserve was the part-time volunteer Territorial Army, which lacked training and was under-equipped. Thus it was able to send only 10 divisions to the continent in 1939 to stand beside the French. However, it had already begun to conscript young men and eventually built up fifty divisions. And it had an important source of additional strength in the forces of the empire and the dominions. The Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and South African Armies would each send several divisions into the field, while the Indian Army stood ready at the beginning of the war to deploy nearly 200,000 men.



British equipment was of mixed quality. The Army enjoyed a great advantage over its German namesake in that it was, from the start, able to provide all its divisions with sufficient motor transport to move their infantry from their own resources. British field artillery, equipped with the famous 25-pounder gun, was also good.
But at the outset the medium artillery lacked proper weapons, while the anti-tank and tank units were notably deficient in modern equipment. In the I Tank (Matilda) the British began the war with a machine which the Germans could not knock out, but it was too small and undergunned to be useful as a weapon of support or exploitation. The cruiser tanks with which the British fought most of the Desert War were insufficiently protected and it was not really until they acquired the Sherman from the Americans that the Royal Armoured Corps had a weapon with which it could meet the Germans on equal terms. Its better home-produced tanks the Churchill and

Cromwell were too few to make a difference.

The British command system, unlike the German or French, devolved considerable responsibility on to the generals in the field. Churchill, with advice from the Chief of the Imperial General Staff - for most of the war the able Alan Brooke - decided the main lines of policy, but left the theatre and battlefield commanders to construct and execute their own battle plans. After American entry, British commanders became increasingly under the control of inter-Allied headquarters, of which the chiefs were usually American. The cordiality of relationships established between the headquarters of both armies was remarkable and a major contribution to the winning of the war.



THE BRITISH ARMY 1939 PART 2
In 1939 Britain had a small professional army. This was backed up by a poorly trained and ill-equipped Territorial Army. On the outbreak of the War PM Chamberlain, agreed to send a British Expeditionary Army to France. Under the command of General John Gort, the force included four infantry divisions and 50 light tanks.
The British government introduced conscription and by May 1940, too late to make a real difference to the fighting in France. British Army strength was brought up to 50 divisions. Of these, 10 divisions were in France fighting against the German Western Offensive. After the evacuations from Dunkirk were complete, the British Army had 1,650,000 men. After the fall of France in June, 1940, the British Army was mainly used to protect the British Empire. This included sending troops to Egypt, Singapore and Burma. A small force was also sent to Greece in March 1941 but it was soon forced to retreat. British Army units also took part in the Allied invasions of Sicily, Italy and France.
The main rifle used by the infantry was the Lee Enfield 303. A trained soldier using this rifle was able to put five shots into a four-inch circle at 200 yards. When fitted with telescopes a good sniper could hit his target at a distance of 1000 yards. In the early stages of the Second World War the British Army purchased the Tommy Gun from the United States. These were expensive and in 1940 they switched to the Sten Gun made by the Royal Small Arms Factory in Enfield. There were several models but the Mark 2 was the most popular. The gun had a massive bolt inside a tubular casing with the barrel fixed to the front and the magazine feeding from the left side where it could be supported on the firer's forearm.
During the War the Royal Small Arms Factory supplied 4 million of these guns to the British Army. It was not popular with the soldiers because its habit of jamming when being used in battle. However, they were cheap to buy and the British government distributed them to resistance groups throughout occupied Europe. The gun could be easily and rapidly dismantled into its component parts for concealment, a distinct advantage for underground fighters. Britain's early heavy machine gun was the extremely reliable water-cooled Vickers 303. It was a recoil-operated machine gun, water cooled and belt fed. It weighed 40lb without its tripod and fired the standard .303 British cartridge at about 450rpm.
The British Army only had 100 tanks left after Dunkirk and Vauxhall Motors were under instructions to produce the tanks as quickly as possible. As a result, the early Churchill tank suffered considerable mechanical problems. It performed badly at the Dieppe Raid but was more successful in North Africa. The armament was also inadequate and in March 1942 it was produced with a 6-pounder gun. The following year this was replaced with a 75mm gun.The first Valentine tanks were delivered in May 1940 and the following year they were sent to take part in the Desert War. During the war there were eleven versions of the tank. For example, the tank's armament changed from a 6-pounder in 1938 to 75mm in 1944. However, the size of the turret remained a problem and the crew constantly complained about a lack of room.

By June 1945 the British Army had grown to 2,920,000 men. During the Second World War 144,079 British soldiers were killed, 239,575 were wounded and 152,079 were taken prisoner.


SIZE AND SRUCTURE OF LAND FORCES

You will often hear that forces are divided in to regiments and brigades and divisions. This table gives you an idea of the numbers of troops in each of these units.




Unit Name

Consists of [1]:

Approx Number of men:

Commanded
by:


Army

2 or more Corps

100,000 to 150,000

Field Marshal or General

Corps

2 or more Divisions

25,000 to 50,000

General or Lt. Gen.

Division

3 or more Brigades or Regiments

10,000 to 15,000

Lt. Gen or Maj. Gen.

Brigade

3 or more Battalions

1500 to 3500

Maj. Gen, Brigadier or Col.

Regiment[2]

2 or more Battalions

1000 to 2000

Col.

Battalion

4 or more Companies

400 to 1000

Lt. Col.

Company

2 or more Platoons

100 to 250

Captain or Maj

Platoon (Troop)

2 or more Squads

16 to 50

1st Lt.

Squad

2 or more Sections

8 to 24

Sgt.

Section

 

4 to 12

Sgt.


RAF SQUADRONS

Battle of Britain RAF worked on the following basis:


A full strength squadron would have 20 aircraft and two reserves, plus 16 operational pilots, and would be expected to fly 12 aircraft, either as four flights of three or three flights of four.

If the strength fell below 9 they should have been relieved and posted to another Group, however some squadrons suffered exhaustion from persistent combat and heavy losses, and were far from efficient before being withdrawn.



Some squadrons lasted 4 to 6 weeks, others had to be replaced after only a week to ten days. On 2.9.40 seven squadrons were reduced to less than half strength, and by 7.9.40 it was impossible to exchange squadrons quickly enough as their strength in operational pilots ran down.

THE RAF IN 1939

In December, 1918, the RAF had more than 22,000 aircraft and 291,000 personnel, making it the world's largest airforce. Over the next twenty years the RAF was developed as a strategic bombing force. A fleet of light and medium monoplane bombers were developed during this period, notably the Vickers Wellington. The RAF also obtained two fast, heavily armed interceptor aircraft, the Hawker Hurricane and the Supermarine Spitfire, for defence against enemy bombers.

The British government grew increasingly concerned about the growth of the Luftwaffe in Nazi Germany and in 1938 Vice Marshal Charles Portal, Director of Organization at the Air Ministry, was given the responsibility of establishing 30 new air bases in Britain. In September 1939 Bomber Command consisted of 55 squadrons (920 aircraft). However, only about 350 of these were suitable for long-range operations. Fighter Command had 39 squadrons (600 aircraft) but the RAF only had 96 reconnaissance aircraft.

During the 1920s and early 1930s the bomber-fighter debate was largely contained within military and economic spheres. The British, for instance, invoked a "Ten Year Rule" for approving military expenditures, based on the probability of war in the next ten years. Events in Germany in 1933 changed the rules.
In late 1937, the first Vickers Wellington appeared, boasting a speed of 230 mph and a phenomenal bomb load of 4500 lbs. Of geodetic construction and largely fabric-covered, the 'Wimpey' was a truly astounding aircraft, and would serve the RAF well for many years. She too carried defensive armament in the nose and tail turrets to fight of enemy fighters.

Bomber development was amazingly rapid in all countries during the 1930s, Britain introduced the Blenheim and Battle (both light bombers), and the Hampden and Whitley (medium bombers).

Even more extraordinary was the development of a new generation of fighter aircraft. The Hawker 'Hurricane' and Supermarine 'Spitfire' in Britain, were only some of the fighters developed during the late 30s. Even in their early versions, all but one of these were much faster than previous fighters, with maximum speeds ranging from 320-380 mph.

PROBLEMS

Despite some innovative initiatives, Britain did not have sufficient trained pilots. In Bomber Command, this extended to all other air crew: gunners; navigators; wireless operators. The Voluntary Reserve, begun in 1937, had helped address the lack of pilots, but not nearly quickly enough. And although the RAF had a fine training school both for ground and air crew, the number of bodies completing the training was below requirements. Exacerbating this, there were insufficient aircraft to train even the pilots and crew they had. Aircraft in existing squadrons were being cannibalized to keep other planes in readiness; to remove yet

more for training purposes could prove disastrous.

In 1939 there were no accurate, reliable navigation aids. In simple terms, how does a pilot bomb a target if he cannot find it? How does he find it at night? The third difficulty was related to the second. Even if reliable navigation devices had been available, pilots and navigators had simply not had enough experience flying through adverse weather to be successful in the range of conditions to be expected in northern Europe. Having been 'stood down' in inclement conditions during peacetime - a sensible precaution in terms of crew and aircraft safety, though not exactly forward-thinking when training for war - aircrew were totally unprepared for the seasonal hazards of fog, snow, ice and cold.


Whatever the British would learn in 1939 about the limitations of their own air power, there is every indication that they were still convinced of the devastating power of a strategic enemy air force. Between Munich and the beginning of the war, thousands of Anderson Shelters were distributed and erected in back yards across the nation. Plans were put in place for the evacuation of 1,500,000 children and mothers from London and other likely targets. So many deaths were expected from bombing that the cost of wood for coffins alone was deemed prohibitive, and it was decided that mass graves and burning with quick lime would provide the only option to the nation.
During the Second World War the RAF reached a total strength of 1,208,843 men and women. Of these, 185,595, were aircrew. The RAF also had the services of 130,000 pilots from the British Commonwealth and 30,000 aircrew from Britain's defeated European allies. During the war the RAF used 333 flying training schools. In all, between 1940 and 1945 the scheme trained out aircrew from Britain (88,022), Canada (137,739), Australia (27,387), South Africa (24,814), Southern Rhodesia (10,033) and New Zealand (5,609).

This air campaign killed an estimated 600,000 civilians and destroyed or seriously damaged some six million homes. A total of 70,253 RAF personnel were lost on operations during the Second World War. Of these, 47,293 came from Bomber Command.





THE RAF - A SUMMARY

At this time 1939 Bomber Command consisted of 55 squadrons, which consisted of 920 aircraft. Fighter command had 39 squadrons with 600 aircraft. However, in 1918, the RAF had more than 22,000 aircraft; therefore it had been significantly reduced. Also, the RAF only had 96 reconnaissance aircraft (used for monitoring enemy activity). Moreover, the growth of the Luftwaffe in Nazi Germany meant that the enemy was gaining an advantage over Britain. Germany had been building up their air force since the early 1930s in breach of the Treaty of Versailles. They had even trained their pilots inside the Soviet Union. By 1939 their aircraft numbered 4210 but Britain’s was only approximately 900. This left Britain extremely vulnerable to air attack.

Yet, Britain’s air force benefited from a number of technological advances. Light and medium monoplane bombers were developed, such as the Vickers Wellington. It appeared in 1937, had a speed of 230 miles per hour and a bomb load of 4500lbs. The Hawker Hurricane and the Supermarine Spitfire were heavily armoured interceptor aircraft, designed to intercept and destroy enemy aircraft. They had speeds ranging from 320 to 380 mph and were designed by R.J. Mitchel. The Battle of Britain would not have been won without them. In addition, in 1939 the Government announced a scheme for the production of seventeen and a half thousand aircraft. This was made possible by the restructuring of industry. Also, aircraft output rose from 161 in January 1938 to 712 in March 1939.

However, bombers were being developed in all countries, plus there was a real fear of German bombers. This was evident in 1938 when the German air force bombed Guernica during the Spanish Civil War killing hundreds. Chamberlain stated, ‘the bomber will always get through’7, in reference to the German bombers. There was also underlying problems with the RAF personnel and training. Pilots were not suitably trained nor were gunners, navigators or wireless operators. Also, pilots were insufficiently trained to fly in bad weather and unknown climates. There was also scarce aircraft to train pilots and was introduced too late to make a real difference. ‘The Germans had a larger force of trained pilots on which to call, with an overall military figure of 10,000 in 1939, while Fighter command could only add 50 each week to its complement’8.

In order to overcome some of the problems, the RAF was reorganised and Lord Swinton was put in charge of the Air Ministry. In addition, in 1938 Vice Marshal Charles Portal (Director of Organisation at the Air Ministry) established 30 new air bases in Britain. However, many of Britain’s efforts to prepare the RAF for war were too late.

Britain had an advantage over Germany when it came to radar’s however as Britain had a chain of radar stations from John O’ Groats to Lands end. These gave early warning of incoming aircraft without wasting fuel or pilot time. This was one of the most important developments for Britain during the war.



On the whole, the British air force was ill-prepared. The government did well in making plans for new aircraft but they were delayed too long. Apart from the Navy, both the army and the Royal Air Force were much smaller than Germany’s, putting Britain at a disadvantage. Germany had 2800 front line planes whereas Britain had fewer than 1000. The fact that Britain had a weak RAF also impaired the other two military services as it was vital to have a strong, capable air force, especially as Germany was so powerful. The Wellingtons, Spitfires and Hurricanes were essential in the war against Germany and certainly put Britain at an advantage but again, issues such and personnel and training greatly hindered the service.


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