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Eastern Europe After World War II: A Soviet Empire

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Eastern Europe After World War II: A Soviet Empire:

Soviet post-war policy included a wish to protect the country from invasion and a desire to maintain its position as a world power. Pacific islands taken from Japan late in the war and influence in North Korea and Vietnam increased the Soviet sphere.
While expanding its influence in many areas, the Soviet Union first extended its influence in Eastern Europe. The many young nations of the area had struggled between the wars and then had fallen to the Nazis. The Soviets took all but Albania, Greece, and Yugoslavia by 1948. In the region, the Soviet Union exported its collectivization program, and industrialization, while silencing opposition. The Warsaw Pact formed a separate economic sphere. Some social and economic problems were addressed, but the Berlin Wall was erected in 1961, making the Soviet approach to choice clear. Easing of Stalinism in 1956 led to high expectations. Poland showed some independence, with Soviet approval. A Hungarian uprising was viciously suppressed, but overall Soviet control did loosen. A more liberal Czechoslovakian regime was condemned by the Soviet Union. The Polish Solidarity movement was allowed to develop, under close scrutiny. While differences continued between countries, by the 1980s Eastern Europe had been transformed by Soviet influence. Conversely, the need to keep east European opposition under control kept the Soviet Union preoccupied.
Propaganda was used by the soviet leaders, vilifying the United States. Control of the media, of the media, of travel, and of the borders allowed the government to maintain control over its own people. Stalin’s organization of the state and society, dominated by the Communist Party, continued with few changes.

Soviet Culture: Promoting New Beliefs and Institutions:

The Soviet government was an innovative attempt to expand the state with popular support, while promoting a new, common, culture. Its attack on the Orthodox Church began soon after the 1917 revolution, and mainly consisted of hampering the church’s ability to influence the young. In the area of culture, as well, the government set its own agenda, often in opposition to Western trends. Ballet and classical music were important exceptions. Literature developed with relative freedom, often choosing themes that celebrated the Soviet experience. The author of the Gulag Archipelago, Aleksander Solzhenitsyn, is an example of a writer that adhered to many Russian values, while criticizing much of the Soviet government. The sciences and social sciences continued to hold a preeminent position, though under government control.
Industrialization in the Soviet Union, along with most of Eastern Europe, was complete by 1960. Heavy industry was still given priority over manufacturing consumer goods. The drive to increase production had a serious, adverse impact on the environment. Leisure activities became important, and a division between workers and managers followed industrialization in the Soviet Union, as it had in the West. Changes in family structure, including a falling birthrate and increasing women’s employment, also resembled Western developments.
Stalin’s death in 1953 jeopardized the system he had created. However, the system was sufficiently entrenched to survive. Nikita Khrushchev monopolized power in 1956, and condemned Stalin’s methods. More criticism of the state was allowed. Khrushchev brought the Soviet Union close to war with the United States when he refused to back down in Cuba. Khrushchev’s failed scheme to open Siberia to cultivation led to his fall from power. The 1960s and 1970s were relatively stable in the Soviet Union.

Key Terms:

Solidarity
European Union
New Feminism
Berlin Wall
Civil Rights Movement
Great Society
Marshall Plan
Iron Curtain
Nato
Warsaw Pact

Chapter 31, Quiz Questions
1) Which of the following statements concerning western European nations in NATO is most accurate?
A) Increasingly western European nations withdrew from NATO and established self-sufficient military defensive systems.
B) Western European nations rapidly lost their fear of Soviet aggression leading to weakening of NATO.
C) Western European nations rapidly expanded their military expenditures to equal and exceed those of the U.S.
D) Europeans ultimately became rather comfortable with the concept of relying on U.S. protection.
E) West Germany took the lead in establishing a new anti-Soviet coalition and withdrawing from NATO.
2) Which of the following statements concerning the development of new governments in Europe after World War II is most accurate?
A) Except for Germany and Italy, political stability was restored through the institution of more authoritarian governments.
B) New constitutions established in western Europe uniformly established effective parliaments with universal (including female) suffrage.
C) Constitutions formed after World War II were noteworthy primarily for the lack of durability.
D) As late as the 1980s several nations clung to semi-fascist, authoritarian regimes ruled by strongmen.
E) A strong pan-Europe movement developed which led to the creation of a super-European state.
3) The creation of the welfare state
A) was accomplished only in the United States.
B) was carried out as part of the program of conservatism in European governments following World War II.
C) was necessitated by the recurrence of the depression following World War II.
D) resulted from the leftward shift of the political spectrum in Europe following World War II.
E) was a worldwide movement found in the industrialized West as well as in colonial areas such as Africa.
4) Which of the following statements concerning the European welfare state is most accurate?
A) The imposition of the welfare state was accompanied by the elimination of the private sector in most European nations.
B) Middle-class people, in general, failed to realize any benefits from the welfare state.
C) Although some aspects of the welfare state redistributed income, it did not make a huge dent on western Europe's unequal class system.
D) All of the tax schemes introduced by the welfare state were intended to redistribute income from the wealthy to the poor.
E) The economic status of the lower class improved substantially from the end of World War II to 1960.
5) Which of the following was NOT an effect of the welfare state?
A) It cushioned citizens against big expenses and unusual hardships, rather than rearranging the social structure.
B) It protected the purchasing power of the very poor against catastrophe and contributed to improved health conditions.
C) It increased contacts between government and citizen and produced a host of new regulations.
D) Immediately upon its creation, it generated a storm of political protest from conservative political factions.
E) It proved to be very expensive for governments to manage and operate.
6) Which of the following paralleled the development of the welfare state?
A) Increased military spending
B) Increased government role in economic policy
C) Increased political conservatism
D) Decreased government spending overall
E) Decreased spending on technology and research
7) The European Economic Community is a good example of
A) Europe's continued national strife.
B) cooperation between European nations and a willingness to create a single European economy.
C) the need for Europe to develop a single foreign policy independent of the U.S.
D) the continued economic dependence of the European nations on the capital derived from the U.S.
E) the continued economic dependence of the European nations on the influence of Marxist ideas and the power of the Soviet Union.
8) Which of the following statements most accurately describes the European economy of the post-1950s?
A) The European economy stagnated shortly after the withdrawal of the U.S. from European affairs.
B) Overall growth in gross national product surpassed the rates of any extended period since the Industrial Revolution began.
C) With the exception of a major depression from 1958 to 1964, the European economy grew.
D) While southern European nations, long the least developed of the continent, demonstrated remarkable growth, northern Europe slid into economic recession.
E) Eastern Europe became an economic powerhouse while northern Europe fell into economic depression.
9) Which of the following statements most accurately describes the situation of European peasantry in the social structure of late 20th-century Europe?
A) The European peasantry disappeared following World War II.
B) The European peasantry decreased in size and became increasingly commercialized.
C) The European peasantry continued to remain exclusively rural and rejected 20th-century urban culture.
D) Alone among European social classes, the peasantry remained independent of the state bureaucracies.
E) The European peasantry began to join the military in large numbers as a way of improving their economic status.
10) Which of the following statements concerning Western culture during the later 20th century is most accurate?
A) In the fine arts, most artists attempted a return to the classical forms of the Renaissance and the ancient world.
B) More than any other scientific field, the social sciences abandoned the traditional emphasis on consistency in human and social behavior.
C) In the field of physics, modern scientists were unable to go beyond the startling discoveries of the 19th century.
D) Western culture in the 20th century, both in art and in science, became largely relative rather than objective.
E) Romanticism was re-introduced with much success due to the increasing alienation among the intellectual class.
11) Which of the following statements concerning the Orthodox church under Stalin's regime is most accurate?
A) The regime appointed the Orthodox church the only approved religion within the state.
B) The Orthodox church became the primary instrument of the regime's policy of education.
C) The Orthodox church ceased to exist during the Stalinist regime.
D) Loyalties to orthodoxy persisted, but they were concentrated in a largely elderly minority.
E) The Orthodox church continued to endorse the political policies of the Soviet regime.
12) Which of the following was NOT a source of pressure on the Soviet family?
A) Religious constraints imposed by the Orthodox church
B) Crowded housing
C) Loss of ties to extended family life of the countryside
D) Mothers who worked long hours away from the home
E) Increased use of alcohol
13) In what way did the social organization of the industrialized Soviet Union come to resemble that of the West?
A) Emphasis on service industries and managerial hierarchies
B) The division of urban society between workers and a managerial middle class
C) The absence of a true proletariat
D) Lack of a peasantry
E) The use of the free market as an economic mechanism
14) Women in Russian industrialized society
A) rapidly reached the same status as males.
B) were less likely to be in the work force than women in the West.
C) dominated some professions, such as medicine.
D) were afforded the same type of domestic idealization typical of women in the West.
E) played a major role as political leaders.
15) Which of the following statements concerning the Soviet military following Stalin's death is most accurate?
A) Overall the Soviet Union played a cautious diplomatic game, almost never engaging in warfare but maintaining a high level of preparedness.
B) The continued growth of the Soviet military led to an increasing willingness on the part of Russian rulers to engage in direct military intervention around the globe.
C) Following Stalin's death, subsequent Soviet rulers enacted a policy of progressive demilitarization.
D) Following World War II, the Soviet military played no significant role in subsequent Russian history.
E) The Soviet military attempted to create a containment system when it came to countering American military moves.
Essay Questions:
Western Society and Eastern Europe in the Decades of the Cold War

Describe some of the societal and political changes of the 1970s.

In what ways did Stalinism alter the original concepts of Soviet economy and government?

In what ways did the cultural policies of the Stalin regime depart from traditional Russian practices? In what ways did it emphasize them?

How did the failures of the Soviet economy lead, in part, to the changes in Soviet policy after 1985?

Chapter 32, Latin America: Revolution and Reaction into the 21^st Century
Summary:
In Latin America, much of the 20^th century witnesses a struggle between the forces of revolution and reaction. The focus of this chapter and the next is on third world nations, which display great diversity and cultural emphasis. In the second half of the 20^th century, Latin America took an intermediate position between the nations of the North Atlantic and those of Africa and Asia. Investments often came form the West, and Latin America was vulnerable to the world financial system. Throughout the 20^th century, it grappled with issues of social justice, cultural autonomy, and economic security. Workers’ organizations emerged as a political force. Explosive urban growth and emigration were often key concerns. Overall, the economy and politics were subject to broad shifts. Although much of Latin America was subject to the rhetoric of social and political change, remarkable little change actually occurred. At the same time, significant transformations took place in education, social services, women’s rights, and the role of industry.
Key Concepts:
Latin America After World War II:

Following World War II, authoritarian rulers held power in several Latin American countries, including Peron in Argentina and Vargas in Brazil. Dissent was often countered by oppressive measures.
The PRI controlled Mexico until 2000. The Zapatistas emerged in 1994, calling to mind Emiliano Zapata’s unfulfilled movement. Mexico joined the North American Free Trade Union (NAFTA), hoping to boost its economy, leader of the National Action Party (PAN), ended decades of PRI domination.

Radical Options in the 1950’s:

Unsatisfied desire for reform built up in many countries, including Venezuela and Costa Rica, where elections brought reformers to power. In 1952, a revolution broke out in Bolivia, conservative forces won the day.
Guatemala, like Bolivia, had an Indian majority and an extremely inequitable distribution of resources. Juan Jose Arevalo was elected in 1944. His program included land reform, in the face of such large foreign compnies as the United Fruit Company. Arevalo was replaced in 1952 by Jacobo Arbenz. The United States moved to protect United Fruit form Arbenz’s more radical program and to stop perceived communism. The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency organized an invasion force, bringing in a pro-U.S. regime. Guatemala’s problems continued, and a guerilla movement emerged.
Unlike Guatemala and Bolivia, Cuba had a population mostly descended from European colonists and African slaves. By the 1950s, Cuba was firmly in the U.S. sphere of influence. Fulgencio Batista ruled Cuba from 1934-1944. Undertaking reforms, his regime moved close to dictatorship. In 1953, Fidel Castro launched an unsuccessful attack on the Cuban military. Fleeing to Mexico, Castro joined Ernesto “Che” Guevara, and the two raised troops and invaded Cuba in 1956. By 1958, they were in control, and Castro’s movement had become more radical. U.S. opposition pushed Castrol into the Soviet camp. The United States face-off with Cuba became part of the Cold War. Castro’s reforms were sweeping and particularly successful in the area of social welfare. The Cuban economy, on the other hand, required Soviet support. Reform in Cuba, and the island’s resistance to U.S. pressure, made it an attractive model for other Latin American countries.

The Search for Reform and the Military Option:

In Latin America, revolution continued to be a likely option to resolve persistent problems. Another option, taken by Mexico, was the stability of one-party rule. Christian Democrats, especially in Chile and Venezuela, offered the support of the church in seeking social reform and protection of human rights. Liberation theology, combining Catholic theology and socialism or Marxism, was another popular solution.
Military involvement in Latin American politics was a long-standing tradition. Often acting in reaction to the threat of reform, including communist programs, Military groups took action in Brazil and Argentina. In Chile, the socialist President Salvador Allende was removed by the military. Military regimes aimed to impose neutral regimes that would stabilize their economies. Brutality was used when it was thought necessary. Economic growth was achieved in some cases, but at the cost of more equitable resource distribution. Military regimes varied, and in some cases sought popular support and social and land reforms.
By the middle of the 1980s, military regimes were giving way to civil governments. Elections were held in Argentina in 1983. El Salvador and Guatemala were returned to civilian rule in 1992 and 1996. Inflation, debt, and the drug traffic plagued Latin American economies. While democracy spread, some countries took more radical paths. Hugo Chavez’s regime in Venezuela gained a following in other countries.
The United States cast a long shadow over Latin American developments throughout the 20^th century. U.S. influence included private investment, outright invasion, and sometimes both. More than 30 U.S. military actions occurred in Latin America before 1933. Nicaragua’s Augusto Sandino led armed resistance against U.S. trained forces, inspiring the Sandinista movement. U.S. intervention led to the establishment and then control of so called banana republics. Widespread hostilitiy to U.S. interference was voiced by Pablo Neruda. Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy was a brief change to more equitable relations. The U.S. Alliance for Progress provided over $10 billion to help economic development in Latin America. The 1970s and 1980s were typified by U.S. involvement in Latin America on an ad hoc basis to protect U.S. interests. Financial support from the United States to Latin America is largely for military spending.

Societies in Search of Change:

Important social changes occurred in Latin America in the 20^th century, in spite of disappointments in attempts to bring about larger social reforms.
Women’s roles changed slowly. Ecuador, Brazil, and Cuba granted women the right to vote by 1932. Feminist and suffrage movements became more active. In some countries, women gained the vote, only to join parties that denied them further rights. Entering the workforce in large numbers in the early decades of the 20^th century, women still lagged behind men in pay. Women in Peru, Ecuador, and Bolivia are influential in small-scale commerce and have become a political force. Concerning the position of women, by the mid-1990s, Latin America stood between industrialized and developing nations.
Population growth was high in Latin America, and accompanied by significant population movements. Mexican migrant labor into the United States reached 750,000 per year by 1970, primarily coming form Mexico. The figure is about 5 million for movement within the continent. Industrialization, political repression, and instability have contributed to the phenomenon. Moreover, movement form rural to urban areas has created large urban areas surrounded by shantytowns. Unlike rural workers moving into towns during European industrialization, the new arrivals often failed to make it into the ranks of industrial workers a divided urban population has resulted.
Latin America remains overwhelmingly Catholic. Popular culture has maintained its energy. Striving for social justice and welfare has invigorated artistic expression. Frustrated desire for change led some writers to pursue “magical realism.” Writers such as Gabriel Garcia Marquez combined close observation of his own culture with a fantastic setting.

Key Terms:

NAFTA
Juan Peron
Vicente Fox
Bay of Pigs
Third World
Fidel Castro
Liberation Theology
Banana Republics
United Fruit Company
Good Neighbor Policy

Chapter 32, Quiz Questions
1) Which of the following statements concerning the revolution in Guatemala in 1954 is most accurate?
A) The communist Arbenz government that ruled Guatemala was overthrown by liberal reformers under Arevalo.
B) Communist revolutionaries overthrew the conservative military government despite active U.S. support.
C) The U.S. Central Intelligence Agency aided conservative dissidents in overthrowing the nationalistic Arbenz government.
D) The U.S.-supported regime that replaced the Arbenz government introduced significant land reform and limited foreign ownership of Guatemalan industry.
E) The regime of Arevalo was overthrown by a U.S.-backed group of military dissidents.
2) Which of the following statements most accurately describes the outcome of the Cuban revolution?
A) Despite the successful overthrow of Batista, the revolutionary government failed to enact significant reforms in the plantation economy.
B) The revolutionary government eventually announced its adoption of Marxist-Leninist leanings, broke off relations with the U.S., and introduced sweeping socialist reforms.
C) The largely liberal government that resulted from the revolution returned to the constitution of 1940 and closer relationships with the U.S.
D) After a brief sojourn in the U.S., Batista was able to return to power with the support of the U.S. military.
E) Castro and the United States agreed to a cease-fire and resumed normal relations by 1970.
3) The revolutionary government of Cuba traded economic dependency on the U.S. for
A) economic autonomy with a successful program of industrialization.
B) increasing political and economic ties with Japan.
C) increasing economic dependency on the Soviet Union.
D) a significant share of the world's petroleum market.
E) increased aid from other third world nations such as Nigeria.
4) Which of the following is NOT true in regards to officers of the Latin American military?
A) They began to see themselves as above the selfish interests of political parties.
B) They began to think of themselves as the true representatives of the nation.
C) They believed in the value of hierarchy and usually kept their place in society.
D) They believed they were the best equipped to solve their nation's problems.
E) They saw themselves as reformers of society.
5) The common thread running through all of the military regimes of Latin America was
A) they were all supported by the United States.
B) they were all supported by the working populations.
C) they were all reform-minded.
D) they were all nationalistic.
E) they were all supported by the USSR.
6) Which of the following statements concerning military governments in Latin America after 1960 is most accurate?
A) Military governments tended to favor labor and the working classes at the expense of the traditional oligarchy.
B) Political repression and torture were often used to silence critics.
C) None of the military governments was successful in introducing social or economic reforms.
D) Military governments were uniformly surrogates for conservatives in Latin American society.
E) They were all supported by the United States as part of a cold war strategy.
7) Which of the following statements most accurately reflects the progress of democratization in Latin America during the 1980s?
A) Despite return to democratic government in many Latin American countries, problems with populist movements, threats from military leaders, inflation, and the drug trade weakened the new regimes.
B) Once democratic governments were restored in much of Latin America, the influence of the U.S. in the region began to wane.
C) The return of democracy to Latin America was so universal that military governments ceased to exist.
D) Democratic governments in the 1980s ceased to be troubled by the existence of leftist, guerrilla movements.
E) The trend led to increased resistance from many communist nations around the world.
8) What led to the U.S. return to more aggressive policies regarding Latin America including direct military intervention following World War II?
A) The desire to contain communism and the cold war
B) The discovery of uranium in Mexico
C) The increasing intervention of Japan into Latin American economies
D) The alliance of many Latin American countries with fascist governments during the war
E) The rise of many military-operated governments in the region.
9) Which of the following statements concerning women in Latin American politics and society is most accurate?
A) Nowhere in Latin America did women achieve the right to vote before 1955.
B) Women tended to join the national political parties, where traditional prejudices against women in public life limited their ability to influence political programs.
C) Women continued to be excluded from the Latin American industrialized labor force, although they played a major role in agricultural production.
D) By the mid-1980s, Latin American women continued to hold social and political status more similar to other areas of the third world than western Europe and North America.
E) Women were unwilling to challenge the traditions that kept them out of the political arena.
10) Which of the following statements concerning Latin American population is most accurate?
A) Between 1950 and 1985, Latin American population remained stagnant due to poor health conditions and constant internal warfare.
B) Despite improvements, Latin America's population continued to increase more slowly than that of North America.
C) Almost all population increase in Latin America can be attributed to immigration of European laborers.
D) Since 1950, Latin American population has more than doubled, while North American population has grown more slowly.
E) The diffusion of the Latin American people into the United States has virtually ceased.
Essay Questions:
Latin America: Revolution and Reaction into the 21^st Century

Define populism. How have populist politics had a role in Latin America?

Compare and contrast the radical revolutions of the 1950’s in Cuba and Guatemala.

How “revolutionary” has change been in the Latin American economy and society since 1910?

Discuss the role of the military in Latin American political development during the late 20^th century.

Chapter 33, Africa, the Middle East, and Asia in the Era of Independence
Summary:
Deep divisions between ethnic and religious groups remained when European rulers disappeared form their former colonies. Economic life was hampered by concessions made to the departing colonizers and by an international economy that favored industrialized nations. They lacked technological and management expertise, and had to face steady population growth and environmental degradation. Social unrest occurred due to corruption and breakdowns in traditional culture. Failure to solve the problems produced dissent and disturbances that shook existing regimes. Opponents included political and religious revivalist groups with widely different proposed solutions. Leaders adopted differing strategies to remain in power, but many were replaced by military officers who assumed dictatorial authority. In Iran, an anti-Western religious movement triumphed.
Key Concepts:
The Challenges of Independence:

Nationalism continued to be a force in newly independent nations, often used by leaders against departing Europeans. Yet when the latter did leave, improvements were not as great as many expected. Distribution of goods already in short supply often led to difficulties. Struggles for independence had often brought about unity, which could disappear when the foreign regimes departed. When artificial boundaries established between rival peoples disappeared, conflict often broke out. Bangladesh established its independence following years of conflict arising from the partition of India. The work of just keeping countries together absorbed a great deal of energy.
Rapidly growing populations were a problem in all of the developing countries. New crops, especially those from the New World, led to population growth, as did better infrastructures under colonial rule. Moreover, since the early 20^th century, health care has added to population growth. The problem has been most obvious in Africa, where population growth rates have been extremely high, in spite of the AIDS epidemic. Developing countries, behind in industrialization, had trouble feeding or employing their growing populations. Cultural attitudes have prevented birth control form becoming popular, in particular in areas where religion or society requires sons. Infant mortality has also dropped.
The move from rural to urban areas that occurred in Europe in the 18^th ad 19^th centuries occurred also in developing nations, with the difference that industrialization is generally absent, leaving newcomers unemployed and destitute. Urban poor are often a volatile political force. Urban sprawl includes large unplanned shantytowns. Overpopulation in rural areas has had a profound environmental impact.
Women’s suffrage was often incorporated into new constitutions, although women’s roles have often expanded only slowly. The example of such powerful women as Indira Gandhi – daughter of Jawharlal Nehru – or Corazon Aquino is misleading, because they came to prominence through their husbands or father. Benazir Bhutto, prime minister of Pakistan, was preceded in the office by her father. Early marriages and large families leave the majority of women in developing countries little time for other pursuits. Malnourishment among women is high because of the tradition of giving the best food to their children and husbands. Rights granted by law are often severely limited by religious revivalism in many countries.
Nationalist leaders hoped to industrialize, but were hampered by insufficient capital. Cash crops and mineral resources are key in many nations. These primary products have been subject to price swings, leaving nations vulnerable to market forces. Leaders in Africa and the Middle East have often blamed the neocolonial economy, but other factors play a part. In many countries, a tiny minority absorbs a disproportionate amount of revenue. The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund have aided industry in developing nations, but the aid often required economic restructuring.

Paths to Economic Growth and Social Justice:

Leaders of new nations are still seeking solutions to the problems of development.
Authoritarian rule has been a common, but largely unsuccessful, response. The example of Kwame Nkrumah in Ghana illustrates the point. Genuinely wishing for reform, he finally opted for Soviet support, alienating Western powers. Crucial revenue form cocoa exports dropped when cocoa prices fell. To stay in power, Nkrumah resorted to oppression and to the celebration of what he called a unique version of socialism. He accepted comparisons with Confucius and Mohammad, increasing opposition. Suppressed dissenters rose up during his brief absence in 1966 and deposed him. Military regimes have succeeded Nkrumah.
Military leaders have often used the force at their disposal to impose control after order has broken down. Western governments tended to support these military leaders because they are generally anti-communist. Military dictatorships have varied considerably, from the rule of Idi Amin in Uganda, to that of Gamal Abdul Nasser in Egypt. The Egyptian Fee Officers Movement had its roots in the 1930s, beginning with a nationalist agenda. It was allied for a time to the Muslim Brotherhood, founded in 1928 by Hasan al-Banna. The later movement focused on social reform. The murder of al-Banna in 1949 failed to stop the movement. Egypt’s defeat in the first Arab-Israeli war of 1948 and anger over British occupation of the Suez Canal led to a coup in 1952. The Free Officers took control, and Nasser emerged as leader. The state was used as a tool to bring about land reforms and to establish an educational system. The regime controlled foreign investment and managed to gain control of the Suez Canal zone. Land reform was flawed by corruption and by the maneuvers of large landowners. The Aswan Dam project created significant, unforeseen problems. Anwar Sadat succeeded Nasser, reversing many of the latter’s programs. Private initiative was favored over state-run projects. Sadat also reversed the policy of hostility to Israel. His successor, Hosni Mubarak, has generally followed Sadat’s course. The problems of population growth and massive poverty continue.
India, since it gained independence, has managed to avoid military rule. Rulers such as Nehru have pursued social reform and economic development, while protecting civil rights in a democratic state. Nehru mixed public with private investment. The Green Revolution has increased agricultural yields. High-tech industry has also been an important part of the economy. Yet India’s overpopulation problem is immense, and in spite of a growing middle class, a large part of the nation has not benefited form development.
Among postcolonial nations, Iran underwent a revolution under the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Iran had never been colonized, but had come under Western influence. Modernization under the Pahlavi shahs was briefly stopped by a coup, but they were returned to power with the CIA’s support. The shah alienated both the ayatollahs and the mullahs. Attempts at land reform angered the landowners. A drop in oil prices brought the country to revolution in 1979. Khomeini’s promises of purification and a return to the golden age of the prophet were aimed at removing the shah and the Pahlavi dynasty. Like the Mahdi, Khomeini claimed to be divinely led. Iran was purged of Western influence, and moderate and leftist Iranians were condemned. Secularism was eliminated from the law. The new government planned land reforms, but Saddam Hussein led Iraq’s seizure of Iranian territory, leading the two nations to war. The Iran-Iraq war resulted in devastation for Iran, which finally signed an armistice in 1988. Without regime change, the country did experience some easing of restrictions, and more open elections took place in the 1990s.
Several African countries, including Angola and Mozambique, were still under colonial powers into the 1970s. South Africa stood out, however, as by far the largest country still under white rule. The Afrikaners had imposed white rule in their system of apartheid. Black and shites were kept strictly segregated. Overpopulated homelands were reserved for “tribal” groups. The Afrikaners ruled a police state. The African National Congress and other black organizations were declared illegal. Walter Sisulu and Nelson Mandela were two of many African leaders imprisoned. Another, Steve Biko, part of the Black Consciousness movement, was killed in custody. From the 1960s, African guerillas emerged, countered by suppression. International pressure coupled with exhausting wars against Namibia and Angola led to a change in attitude in the South African government. F.W. de Klerk and fellow moderate Afrikaners began to undo apartheid. All adult South Africans were allowed to vote in the 1994 elections, which brought Nelson Mandela and the ANC to power. Ethnic hostility still plagues the country, in spite of the peaceful ending of apartheid.
Some patterns emerge when examining the new nations. India was particularly successful in creating a democratic state, partly because modern India continues pre-conquest traditions on the subcontinent. In the Middle East, Islam continues to be a dominant factor. In Africa as in India, the impacts of colonization have merged with older traditions. In the case of Africa, this often means a tendency toward “Big Man” rule.

Key Terms:

Nelson Mandela
Ayatollah Khomeini
Gamal Abdul Nasser
Anwar Sadat
Hosni Mubarak
Globalization
Neo-colonial Economy
Green Revolution
Apartheid
Muslim Brotherhood

Chapter 33, Quiz Questions
1) Why have ethnic rivalries and communal violence been endemic in decolonized African states?
A) The level of civilization in Africa was more primitive at the time of colonization.
B) Tribal life in Africa was traditionally more violent than other cultures.
C) The introduction of slavery by whites in the 19th century brutalized African culture.
D) Europeans colonized Africa and set boundaries without reference to ethnic groups or cultural homogeneity.
E) Africans received training and weapons from European colonists.
2) European colonizers contributed to African population growth by all of the following means EXCEPT
A) the introduction of new food sources from the New World.
B) by bringing an end to local wars.
C) by introducing railway lines that cut down on regional famines.
D) by encouraging immigration of large numbers of whites.
E) by outlawing all means of birth control.
3) Which of the following is NOT a factor in the high birth rate of third-world nations?
A) The ability to import food to feed the increased population
B) Resistance to birth control
C) Social status symbols attached to male virility and the ability of women to have male children
D) The need to extend family lineages in Africa
E) Lack of awareness and education regarding population growth issues
4) Which of the following statements concerning the urban poor in third-world cities is most accurate?
A) Despite their condition and large numbers, the urban poor of the third world have not had a political impact.
B) Development specialists have concluded that slums provide the only urban housing the poor are likely to find.
C) Cities in the third world, fueled by the existence of cheap labor supply, have become the most productive centers of the economy.
D) Third-world cities generally display the markings of careful urban planning in their programs of expansion.
E) Within a few years most of the population will become middle class and will move to suburbs.
5) On what have third-world countries traditionally depended to finance industrialization?
A) Development of banking systems
B) Sale of resources left behind by colonizers
C) Profits of previous industrialization
D) Sale of cash crops and minerals
E) High taxes
6) "Neocolonialism" refers to
A) Europe's conquest of new colonies in Africa and Asia.
B) Japan's conquest of much of Asia during World War II.
C) the continued relegation of the third world to economic dependency after decolonization.
D) the creation of colonies by India and the more advanced nations of Africa in the last several decades.
E) new world powers are taking over areas once ruled by Europe.
7) Which of the following is NOT a drawback to accepting investment capital from first and second world nations?
A) Excessively high rates of interest
B) Required military alliances
C) Requirements for removal of state subsidies on food and other essential items
D) Commitments to buy products of investors
E) The adoption of Western economic models
8) Which of the following reasons was NOT a factor in explaining the frequency of military takeover in third-world nations?
A) Regimentation rendered soldiers more resistant to division by religious and ethnic rivalries.
B) Isolation from Western and Soviet countries prompted a desire to demonstrate power to foreign governments.
C) The military possessed a monopoly of force essential in restoring order during political crisis.
D) Military personnel possessed some technical training that was often lacking among civilian nationalist leaders.
E) Most of the people in the upper classes favored strong military rule.
9) The military government of Egypt after 1952 attempted all of the following reforms EXCEPT
A) land redistribution schemes limiting the amount of land a single individual could own.
B) state-financed education through the college level.
C) state subsidies to lower the price of food staples.
D) an isolationist foreign policy to minimize military expenses.
E) government employment programs.
10) In which of the following ways was India similar to Egypt following decolonization?
A) Level of industrialization
B) Emphasis on socialism and state intervention
C) Military takeover of government
D) Size of the middle class
E) Minimal influence of religious issues
11) Perhaps more than any other third-world nation, India has been successful at
A) controlling population growth.
B) raising living standards.
C) equitable land redistribution.
D) preserving civil rights and democracy.
E) minimizing religious conflict.
12) In many respects, the Iranian revolution of 1979 is most like
A) the military coup in Egypt in 1952.
B) Gandhi's non-violent resistance to the British Raj.
C) Kwame Nkrumah's government.
D) the Mahdist revolution in the Sudan in the 1880s.
E) the Zionist movement in Israel.
13) Iran, unlike other areas of the third world,
A) had not been colonized by European powers, but had been reduced to an informal sphere of influence.
B) did not have problems with inequitable land distribution
C) possessed a substantial Western-educated middle class that supported the revolution
D) was heavily industrialized and not dependent on the export of cash crops or mineral wealth.
E) had few local traditions to overcome in achieving nationhood.
Essay Questions:
Africa, the Middle East, and Asia in the Era of Independence

What problems tend to be typical of all third world nations?

How have women fared in the newly independent nations of the third world?

Compare and contrast the postcolonial governments of India and Egypt.

In what sense was the Iranian revolution of 1979 a throwback to the fundamentalist revolts of the 19^th century?

In what sense has the process of decolonization been a positive movement?

Chapter 34, Rebirth and Revolution: Nation-building in East Asia and the Pacific Rim
Summary:
The recent history of China, Japan, and Vietnam has significant differences from other Asian and African states. Japan remained independent, industrialized, and became a great imperialist power. After World War II, Korea, Taiwan, and other industrializing nations gave the Pacific Rim new importance. China and Vietnam suffered from Western and Asian imperialists. With their traditional order in ruins, they had to face the usual problems of underdeveloped, colonial, peoples. Full-scale revolutions occurred. By the beginning of the 21^st century, the result of all the changes gave East Asia a new importance in world affairs.
Key Concepts:
East Asia in the Postwar Settlements:

Asia was reorganized following World War II. Korea was occupied by the Soviet Union and the United States, Taiwan went back to China, and elsewhere colonial rule was restored. Changes followed quickly, including Indonesian, Malayan, and Philippine independence. China’s communist regime was transformed.
In spite of extensive destruction during the war, Japan was able to recover quickly. Occupied until 1952, the government and infrastructure was deeply reorganized by the United States. Under a new constitution, the Japanese undertook legal reforms, which nevertheless supported traditional values. The Liberal Democratic Party monopolized the Japanese government from 1955 into the 1990s. Education was made available to more Japanese. Following the end of occupation, traditional values such as repect for the elderly have been emphasized.
Korea was divided in 1948 between the south, under U.S. domination, and the north under the Soviet Union. North Korea was governed by Kim Il-Sung until 1994. South Korea was initially governed by Syngman Rhee. In 1950, the Korean War broke out between North and South Korea. The war ended with an armistice in 1954. The country remained divided.
The Chinese Guomindang occupied Taiwan, while the communists controlled mainland China from 1946-1948. Aid from the United States supported the Taiwanese into the 1960s. Hong Kong was returned to British control, which lasted until 1997. Singapore was also under British rule until 1965. By about 1960, many of the smaller east Asian nations had achieved stability.

Japan, Incorporated:

Japan’s Liberal Democratic Party ruled the country form 1955 to 1993. Many elements of the political system date form the Meiji period. Economic development was based on cooperation between the public and private sectors. Supporting birth control and abortion, state intervention has controlled the population growth. Japanese cultural traditions have been carefully preserved and synthesized with Western borrowings. The writer Yukio Mishima, for example, initially embraced controversial new themes, but later turned to more traditional values.
Japan’s economy grew remarkably, especially after the 1950s. The Japanese government played a large role in economic development, partly through educational reform. Spending little on the military, the country could afford to spend more elsewhere. Japanese labor policies included group exercise and lifetime employment guarantees. A strong sense of group loyalty kept both labor and management productive. Compared to their Western counterparts, Japanese women enjoyed more education, but spent more time on domestic duties. The Japanese suffered less from feelings of isolation, but suffered more from stress than Westerners. Relief is sought in drinking and in the company of geishas. Western influence shows in the popularity of baseball and golf. Problems of population and political corruption have become important issues.

The Pacific Rim: New Japans?

After World War II, South Korea was ruled by Syngman Rhee until 1960. The military leader Park Chung-hee succeeded Rhee, ruling until his assassination in 1979. The military government was removed in the late 1980s, and opposition political movements and freedom of the press were soon established. Industrialization was heavily supported form the mid-1950s. Industrial companies, for example Daewoo and Hyundai, now loom large, creating housing and schools for their employees. Growing population pressures led to state-supported birth control.
In Taiwan, developments in both agriculture and industry spurred economic growth. Private and public investment improved education and led to economic and cultural change. Hostility between China and Taiwan eased with the emergence of informal diplomatic ties. Chiang Ching-kuo replaced his father, Chiang Kai-shek, in 1978. The rule of Singapore’s Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew, ruling from 1965, resembled the Taiwanese government. Oppression was silenced by the people’s Action Party. A well established shipping industry was joined by manufacturing and banking. Hong Kong, also a banking center, connected China with the global economy. The territory was returned to China in 1997.
Commonalties among the Pacific Rim states include cultural traits group cohesion preferred over individualism and political direction, including significant government intervention. Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and other small nations in the region shared in the economic expansion. Growing concerns at the end of the 20^th century included rising unemployment and slowing growth. Predictions that restructuring would be necessary have been contradicted by slow but definite recovery.

Mao’s China and Beyond:

Chiang Kai-shek’s struggle against communism was halted by the Japanese invasion of the 1930s, which led Chiang to join the communists. His conventional forces were not successful against the Japanese, leading to U.S. military support. By 1945, the communists were in the ascendancy. In the civil war form 1945 to 1949, the communists defeated the nationalists. Chiang retreated to Taiwan, and Mao declared the new People’s Republic of China. Mao had won support in China by defeating the Japanese, but also by land reform and by giving the peasants a central role in the movement. Strong military leadership, exemplified by Lin Biao, gave the communists the upper hand.
The communist struggle for power provided the new government with a ready made infrastructure, including the
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