D programming Language
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D Programming LanguageThis Document is a unofficial snapshot of the official online documents at http://digitalmars.com/d/index.html and was created and posted with permission of Walter Bright. We hope that it will be useful for offline reading, even if there is no guarantee that this document is always up-to-date. Revision history: April 15, 2003: First compilation by Alexander Klinsky Corrections and suggestions to: news://news.digitalmars.com/D © Digital Mars, 2003 created April 18, 2003, corresponding to DMD 0.61 "It seems to me that most of the "new" programming languages fall into one of two categories: Those from academia with radical new paradigms and those from large corporations with a focus on RAD and the web. Maybe its time for a new language born out of practical experience implementing compilers." -- Michael "Great, just what I need.. another D in programming." -- Segfault This is the reference document for the D programming language. D was conceived in December 1999 by myself as a successor to C and C++, and has grown and evolved with helpful suggestions and critiques by my friends and colleagues. I've been told the usual, that there's no chance for a new programming language, that who do I think I am designing a language, etc. Take a look at the document and decide for yourself! The D newsgroup in news.digitalmars.com server is where discussions of this should go. Suggestions, criticism, kudos, flames, etc., are all welcome there.
-Walter
Table of Content D Programming Language 1 What is D? 7 Why D? 7 Major Features of D 11 Sample D Program (sieve.d) 17 Lexical 19 Modules 29 Static Construction and Destruction 31 Declarations 32 Types 35
Basic Data Types 35 Derived Data Types 35 User Defined Types 36 Pointer Conversions 36 Implicit Conversions 36 Delegates 37 Properties 38 Properties for Integral Data Types 38 Properties for Floating Point Types 38 .init Property 38 Attributes 40 Linkage Attribute 41 Align Attribute 41 Deprecated Attribute 42 Protection Attribute 42 Const Attribute 42 Override Attribute 42 Static Attribute 43 Auto Attribute 43 Expressions 45 Evaluation Order 47 Expressions 47 Assign Expressions 47 Conditional Expressions 48 OrOr Expressions 48 AndAnd Expressions 48 Bitwise Expressions 49 Equality Expressions 49 Identity Expressions 49 Relational Expressions 50 Shift Expressions 52 Add Expressions 53 Mul Expressions 53 Unary Expressions 53 Postfix Expressions 55 Primary Expressions 55 Statements 57 Labelled Statements 58 Block Statement 58 Expression Statement 59 Declaration Statement 59 If Statement 59 While Statement 59 Do-While Statement 60 For Statement 60 Switch Statement 61 Continue Statement 62 Break Statement 62 Return Statement 63 Goto Statement 63 With Statement 63 Synchronize Statement 64 Try Statement 64 Throw Statement 65 Volatile Statement 65 Asm Statement 65 Arrays 67 Array Declarations 67 Usage 68 Slicing 68 Array Copying 69 Array Setting 69 Array Concatenation 69 Array Operations 70 Rectangular Arrays 71 Array Properties 71 Array Bounds Checking 73 Array Initialization 73 Special Array Types 74 Associative Arrays 75 Structs, Unions, Enums 78 Structs, Unions 78 Enums 78 Classes 81 Interfaces 88 Functions 92 Nested Functions 93 Operator Overloading 98 Unary Operator Overloading 98 Binary Operator Overloading 98 Future Directions 101 Templates 102 Instantiation Scope 103 Argument Deduction 104 Value Parameters 105 Specialization 105 Limitations 105 Contracts 106 Assert Contract 106 Pre and Post Contracts 106 In, Out and Inheritance 108 Class Invariants 108 Debug and Version 109 Predefined Versions 109 Specification 110 Debug Statement 110 Version Statement 111 Debug Attribute 111 Version Attribute 112 Error Handling in D 114 The Error Handling Problem 114 The D Error Handling Solution 115 Garbage Collection 117 How Garbage Collection Works 118 Interfacing Garbage Collected Objects With Foreign Code 118 Pointers and the Garbage Collector 118 Working with the Garbage Collector 119 Memory Management 120 Strings (and Array) Copy-on-Write 120 Real Time 121 Smooth Operation 121 Free Lists 121 Reference Counting 122 Explicit Class Instance Allocation 122 Mark/Release 124 RAII (Resource Acquisition Is Initialization) 125 Allocating Class Instances On The Stack 125 Floating Point 126 D x86 Inline Assembler 128 Labels 128 align IntegerExpression 128 even 129
naked 129 db, ds, di, dl, df, dd, de 129 Opcodes 129 Operands 130 Opcodes Supported 132 Interfacing to C 137 Calling C Functions 137 Storage Allocation 138 Data Type Compatibility 138 Calling printf() 139 Structs and Unions 139 Interfacing to C++ 140 Portability Guide 141 OS Specific Code 141 Embedding D in HTML 142 D Runtime Model 143 Phobos 145 D Runtime Library 145 Philosophy 145 Imports 145 compiler 147 conv 147
ctype 147 date 148
file 149 gc 149
intrinsic 150 math 152
object 155 outbuffer 155 path 156 process 157 random 157 regexp 157 stdint 159 stream 160 string 164 system 166 thread 166 zip 167
stdio 167 D for Win32 168 Calling Conventions 168 Windows Executables 168 DLLs (Dynamic Link Libraries) 169 COM Programming 171 D vs Other Languages 172 Notes 174 Programming in D for C Programmers 175 Programming in D for C++ Programmers 194 The C Preprocessor Versus D 202 The D Style 209 Example: wc 211 Compiler for D Programming Language 213 Files 213 Requirements 213 Installation 213 Example 213 Compiler Arguments and Switches 213 Linking 214 Environment Variables 215 SC.INI Initialization File 215 Bugs 215 Feedback 215 Acknowledgements 216 INDEX 217 O verview
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