Environmental and Social Management Framework for the Costa Rica Telecommunications Sector Modernization Project

General environmental and social baseline

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4General environmental and social baseline

This section provides a high level desktop review of the environmental and social characteristics of Costa Rica that are relevant to the project. Geographical Information System (GIS) based supporting maps are presented in Annex 4 GIS Maps.

4.1General environmental baseline in Costa Rica

4.1.1Geography and Topography

Costa Rica is located in Central America, between Nicaragua and Panama, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the North Pacific Ocean (see Figure 4.1). The total area of the country is 51,100 sq. km (www.inec.go.cr).

Figure 4.1. Map of Central America

Source: www.maps.com

The Andean Sierra Madre chain runs through the country along a northwest-southeast axis, from the north-western part of the country as a narrow strip to the Panamanian border, where it extends coast to coast. Tectonic activity and vulcanism have resulted in a series of distinct mountain ridges (cordilleras). In the northwest is the Cordillera de Guanacaste; to the southeast is the Cordillera de Tilarán; to the east is the Cordillera Central; to the south is the Cordillera Talamanca (see Annex 4, Map 1 Topography of Costa Rica).

Costa Rica contains three main topographic regions: the Central highlands, the Atlantic coastal plain and the Pacific coastal plain:

The Central highlands, roughly 30% of Costa Rica’s area, extend from northwest to southeast in the Cordillera Central, reaching elevations of more than 3,660 m (12,000 ft). The highest point in the country is Chirripó Grande, at 3,810 m (12,500 ft). San José lies at the approximate center in a major valley. The Central Highlands feature a mild, springlike climate year round;
The Atlantic coastal plain, on the Caribbean side of the highlands, comprises about 30% of Costa Rica's territory and has a hot and humid tropical climate with high rainfall supporting tropical forests and banana cultivation. The low-lying plains (llanuras), extend along the entire length of the San Juan River, whose course demarcates the Nicaraguan border to the North;
The Pacific slope, about 40% of the country's area. It is indented with bays and inlets and two large gulfs: the Golfo de Nicoya (to the north) and Golfo Dulce (to the south). The mountains almost reach the sea, coming closer to the ocean here than on the Caribbean side, and the coastal plain is only a few kilometers wide in most places. North of the Golfo de Nicoya, the coastal strip widens to form a broad lowland belt of savanna (the Tempisque Basin) (www.centralamerica.com).

4.1.2Geology and vulnerability to natural disasters

Earthquakes
Costa Rica lies at the boundary where the Pacific's Cocos Plate meets the Caribbean Plate. The two are converging at a subduction zone as the Cocos Plate moves East at a rate of about 10 cm a year. The Cocos Plate has broken into seven fragments, which today move forward at varying depths and angles. The plate movements result in frequent earthquakes (www.centralamerica.com).
The most damaging earthquake in the last twenty years was the 1991 quake located near the Caribbean town of Pandora. With a Richter Scale magnitude of 7.7, it caused 48 deaths and 650 injured. See Figure 4.2 for the locations of earthquakes that occurred in Costa Rica between 1983 and 2003.

Figure 4.2 Most important earthquakes from 1983 to 2003

Source: Laboratorio de Ingeniería Sísmica, Universidad de Costa Rica, http://www.fing.ucr.ac.cr/~lis/

Volcano activity
Costa Rica is home to five major active volcanoes: Irazú, Arenal, Poas, Rincon de la Vieja, and Turrialba; in addition Miravalles is a major inactive volcano (See Figure 4.3 below). The most vibrant ones today are:

Irazú (3,412 meters) - situated close to San José and whose ash fall from its last major eruption during 1963-65 caused significant disruption to San José and surrounding areas;
Poás (2,692 meters): Most historical eruptions of Poás have been small, phreatic or magmatic, sometimes including molten sulphur; and
Arenal (1,624 meters): Arenal's most recent eruptive period began with a major explosive eruption in 1968. Continuous explosive activity accompanied by slow lava effusion and the occasional emission of pyroclastic flows has occurred since then from vents at the summit and on the upper western flank (US Geological Survey, USGS).

The Volcanological and Seismological Observatory of the National University of Costa Rica (OVSICORI-UNA) has developed a Surveillance System of volcanoes of Costa Rica that produces regular diagnosis of state of activity of the five active volcanoes.

Figure 4.3 Major Volcanoes of Costa Rica

Source: US Geological Survey (USGS)

Section 4.3 develops to a technical, environmental and risk assessment for Costa Rica; and Annex 4, Maps 6 and 7 assess risk areas based on slopes and location of volcanoes.

4.1.3Hydrology

The principal stream in Costa Rica is the San Juan River, the outlet of Lake Nicaragua. The San Juan River forms part of Costa Rica’s boundary with Nicaragua to the north. The Reventazón River drains the Southern Central plateau, flowing eastward through deep gorges to the Caribbean. The Río Grande de Tárcoles drains the north-western part of the Central plateau and empties into the Pacific. Costa Rica's only natural lake of any significant size is Lake Arenal (67,296 ha), which is located on the eastern side of the Cordillera de Guanacaste (MSN Encarta). See Annex 4, Map 2 Rivers in Costa Rica.

4.1.4Climate

The climate of Costa Rica ranges from tropical on the coastal plains to temperate in the interior highlands. Costa Rica has two major seasons: the wet season that begins in mid to late April and ends in late November; and the dry season lasts from early December to mid-late April. Rainfall is abundant, with average annual precipitation of 3,300 mm (130 inches) (see Figure 4.4). Average annual temperatures range from 31.7°C (89°F) on the coast to 16.7°C (62°F) inland. However, every region has its own variations:

The higher elevation of the Central Valley makes it cooler and less humid than the lowlands;
The Northern Pacific area is dry and hot in the dry season (which is shorter) and wet and hot in the rainy season;
Humidity rises as one goes South in the Central and Southern Pacific region; and
The Atlantic Coast is the most humid region; its seasons are not as well defined (MSN Encarta).

Figure 4.4 Precipitations in Costa Rica

Administration

Precipitation Ave mm/year
	1475 - 2474
	2475 - 4974
	4975 - 7474
	No Data

Source: FAO County Profiles and Mapping Information System

4.1.5Ecosystems

According to the Global Ecoregions categorization developed by WWF (www.panda.org), the Tropical & Subtropical Moist Broadleaf Forests ecoregion include the Costa Rican seasonal moist forests, also called the Talamancan and Isthmian Pacific Forests which extend from the western lowlands of Costa Rica and Panama, just off the Pacific coast, up to the interior mountain areas. These are the most diverse montane forests in Central America.
Many species have restricted ranges within this ecoregion, and are found only along certain ridges or several watersheds. This area represents a regional center of endemism for a wide range of plant and animal species that are characteristic of Central American moist lowland and montane forests.

Plant species include endemic oaks (Quercus copeyensis and Q. costaricensis), whereas important animals include the Quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno), Crimson fronted parakeet (Aratinga finschi), endemic red-fronted parrotlet (Touit costaricensis), and 10 endemic hummingbirds (Eupherusa nigriventris, Elvira chionura, E. cupreiceps, Lampornis hemileucus, L. cinereicauda, L. castaneoventris, Calliphlox bryantae, Selasphorus flammula, S. scintilla, S. ardens).

Also found are species such as the three-wattled Bellbird (Procnias tricarunculata), endemic black-crowned Antpitta (Pittasoma michleri), threatened and endemic Mountain squirrel (Syntheosciurus brochus), Ocelot (Felis pardalis), and the most likely extinct Golden toad (Bufo periglenes).

Based on Holdridge’s Life Zones Classification, Costa Rica has twelve life zones ranging from the premontane rain forest, lower montane rain forest, montane rainforests, and small patches of subalpine rain paramo to tropical wet forest. See Annex 4, Map 3 Land Cover, Costa Rica.

4.1.6Vegetation

Costa Rica’s vegetal cover varies with the altitude and climate in different regions. The major areas and their characteristics are:

Humid Tropical Forests in the northeast and south coasts, where rain is more abundant;
The Atlantic Coast, between 800 and 1,500 meters above see, where vegetation is typically comprised of tropical forests;
The Central Valley, where agriculture dominates the landscape;
Tropical Savanna in Portero Grande and much of Guanacaste; and
The highlands, the most elevated regions, in which montane tropical forests dominate. (Museos de Costa Rica, ttp://www.museosdecostarica.com/infocostarica9.htm)

4.1.7Wetlands and Mangroves

Wetlands are fragile ecotones at the interface of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that host considerable biodiversity and endemism. There are eleven sites designated as wetlands of international importance (as defined by the Ramsar Convention) in Costa Rica, with a combined area of 510,050 hectares. Total wetlands and water bodies cover 2% of the country. See Annex 4, Map 4 Wetlands, Mangroves and Protected Areas.

4.1.8Land use

In 2005, the total forested area was 2,401,000 hectares, or 47% of the total land area (see Figure 4.5). Arable and permanent cropland covered 10% of total land area in 2004 (FAO, statistical country profile, 2004). Costa Rica’s best agricultural soils are concentrated in the Meseta Central and in the river valleys. See Annex 4, Map 3 Land Cover in Costa Rica.

Figure 4.5 Extent of Forest and other wooded land

Category	Area (1000 hectares)
Category	1990	2000	2005
Forest	2,564	2,376	2,391
Other wooded land	15	10	10
Forest and other wooded land	2,579	2,386	2,401
Other land	2,527	2,720	2,705
...of which with tree cover	230	-	-
Total land area	5,106	5,106	5,106
Inland water bodies	4	4	4
Total area of country	5,110	5,110	5,110

Source: FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2005, http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/countryinfo/en/

4.1.9Biodiversity in Costa Rica and Protected Areas

Costa Rica is considered to be one of the 20 countries with greatest biodiversity in the world. The institution in charge of administering Costa Rica’s biodiversity is MINAE, and more specifically the National System of Conservation Areas (SINAC), which is responsible for the conservation and sustainable use of the country’s biodiversity. Costa Rica has 11 Conservation Areas distributed throughout the country. The 11 Conservation Areas are the different regions established by MINAE to undertake a decentralized management of biodiversity, with the active participation of the communities surrounding the protected areas.
Costa Rica has a very comprehensive legal framework for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. This has been strengthened with the enactment of the Biodiversity Law, approved in 1998, and the formulation of the National Strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Biodiversity, using a highly participatory process at the local and national levels. The National Strategy was completed and officially adopted in 1999. The Biodiversity Law establishes that the National Commission for Biodiversity Management (CONAGEBIO), together with SINAC, is responsible for the administration of the country’s natural resources (source: National Biodiversity Institute, INBio).
Overall, a little over 25% of the country’s territory is under some category of protection. SINAC is the Costa Rican National Parks administrator. SINAC oversees 161 protected areas, of which 25 are designated national parks. Other areas are designated wildlife refuges, biological reserves, national monuments, forest reserves, national wetlands, and protected zones (see Figure 4.6). See Annex 4, Map 5, Protected Areas, Costa Rica.

Category

Amount

Area (ha)

% National Territory
(5.099.873 ha)

National Parks

25

623.771

12,23 %

Biological Reserves

8

21.674

0,42 %

Protected Zones

32

155.817

3,06 %

Forest Reserves

11

227.834

4,47 %

Wildlife Refuges

58

180.035

3,53 %

Wetlands/Mangroves

15

77.869

1,53 %

Other Categories

12

17.306

0,34 %

Total

161

1.304.306

25,58%

Figure 4.6 Conservation Areas as defined by SINAC

Source: SINAC (http://www.costarica-nationalparks.com/)

4.1.10Migratory Birds Corridors

There is little information on Migratory Bird Corridors in Costa Rica. Over three million neotropical migrant birds pass through Costa Rica each year on their way from wintering grounds in Latin America to nesting areas in North America. Many of these same species, pass south through Costa Rica again in the fall, including 17 species of predatory birds (source: interview with Julio Sanchez, Museum of Natural History, June 2007).
The following information is based on observations made by ornithologist Marco Saborio (see Annex 15 Data Sources for the methodology used for gathering baseline information on migratory bird corridors). The routes and birds’ behavior described below are characteristic of four species of predatory birds, which are found to be migrating together and in big quantities (they correspond to 2.1 million birds, out of the 2,35 million observed at the Kekoldi Scientific Center, www.kekoldi.org). These species are:

Turkey vulture (Cathartes aura)
Mississippi kite (Ictinia mississippiensis)
Broad-winged hawk (Buteo platypterus)
Swainson’s hawk (Buteo swainsoni)

The species mentioned in this baseline have a different flying technique than other species. While most species fly by flapping their wings and have to stop during the migration to eat, these predatory birds glide to save energy by using thermal updrafts and winds reflecting off mountains.

Figure 4.7 shows the migratory routes in Costa Rica going South (mainly used from September to October). The route following the Caribbean Coast, from Los Chiles near the Nicaraguan frontier, to Sicaola (frontier with Panama) is the main route. The second route starts in Peñas Blancas and La Cruz, near the frontier with Panama, and then goes towards the Central Valley through the West of the Cordillera de Guanacaste, passing then by the East of the Cordillera Tilarán and finally by the cities of San José and Cartago, before joining the main route.
The alternative route is used when the climate in the main route becomes inappropriate for migration because of rain or when the climate conditions along the Pacific route allow for migration (i.e. dry climate). Migrating birds take the decision about which route to take when they reach reference point 30 (see Figure 4.7). Migration by the alternative route results in massive migrations over the City of San José. The reference points indicated in pink on the map are those where migrating bird density is greatest.

Figure 4.7 Bird migration routes to the South (winter migration)

Note: The gray areas represent the probable route, based on observations from the reference points (coordinates and details can be found in Annex 15 Data Sources).

Source: Marco Saborio, Ornithologist report, 2007
The migration towards the North of Costa Rica takes place mainly in February and March. Birds follow the same main migration route from the South of Costa Rica than from the North. An alternative route (the Pacific route; see points indicated in blue on Figure 4.8) is used when climatic conditions permit, i.e. dry climate. This route starts at reference point 21, at the frontier with Panama, and goes over the Central Valley and the Buena Vista Mountain, before dividing into two routes (see Figure 4.8). Some birds then join the main route towards Los Chiles; others continue they journey to Nicaragua flying over the Cordillera de Guanacaste. The Southern part of the Pacific route is used only during spring migration because of the dry weather and favorable climatic conditions.

Figure 4.8 Bird migration routes to the North (spring migration)

Note: The gray areas represent the probable route, based on observations (coordinates and details can be found in Annex 15 Data Sources).

Source: Marco Saborio, Ornithologist report, 2007
The areas over which birds generally fly are deforested areas or agricultural lands. These zones represent favorable flying conditions because of the thermal updrafts. The main daily resting areas are the Cordilleras de Guanacaste, Tilarán, Central and Talamanca. In most of these areas, birds use forests at the border of cultivated areas or roads to rest. In some areas, in the Cordillera de Talamanca in particular, resting areas are in denser and less accessible forests (used during migration towards the North in February and March).
Along the Caribbean route, there are various points that have been observed as being resting points, either at the end of the day, or because of bad weather. In these cases, birds generally stop close to the country’s main roads. These observations have been made in the zones of Puerto Viejo de Sarapiquí (reference points 4 and 5); close to reference points 9, 13, 16, 17 and Siquirres; and in the forests of the agricultural school EARTH in Guácimo de Pococí.
The altitude at which birds fly depends of the climatic conditions (e.g., wind, temperature, etc,). In general, they fly at lower heights on the Caribbean Coast (they can fly at 100 or 150 meters); thermal updrafts may however lead them to fly at 500, 1000 meters of higher, and even higher when passing over mountains.

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