A. The Widespread Use of Wisdom Literature in the Ancient World-

Conservative scholars believe the proverbs of Solomon were initially written during the reign of King Solomon (1015 to 975 B.C.). This was a "golden age" in Israel's history when it enjoyed the wealth and the dominion of its surrounding nations. Therefore, it was a time of peace for the children of Israel. It is during these periods in a nation's history that the arts and literature flourishes, of which we are familiar with the Golden Age of Greece. This is certainly the case with the nation of Israel during the reign of King Solomon. This king wrote prolifically during his reign and, since proverbial literature was popular in the ancient East and Orient, the book of Proverbs is a product of Israel's "golden age."

However, this type of wisdom literature was not limited to the ancient Hebrews during this period in ancient history. Although we are most familiar with the wisdom literature of the Holy Scriptures, ancient history has been full of wisdom literature. Roland E. Murphy refers to recent studies in ancient Sumerian and Babylonian Proverbs , the Aramaic Proverbs of Ahiqar, and Egyptian wisdom literature. 19] In the literature of Mesopotamia, Instruction of Shuruppak and The Counsels of Wisdom (c 1500-1200 B.C.), and the Words of Ahiqar (704-681 B.C.) are collections of sayings that deal with moral conduct. 20] Therefore, it is likely that the book of Proverbs was influenced to some extent by the wisdom literature that existed in the time of Song of Solomon , as alluded to in the Scriptures ( 1 Kings 4:30, Acts 7:22).

19] Roland E. Murphy, Proverb, in Word Biblical Commentary, vol 22 (Dallas, Texas: Word, Incorporated, 2002), in Libronix Digital Library System, v 21c [CD-ROM] (Bellingham, WA: Libronix Corp, 2000-2004), "Excursus on International Wisdom."

20] Bruce K. Waltke, "The Book of Proverbs and Ancient Wisdom Literature," Bibliotheca Sacra Volume 136 (July 1979): 222-239, in Libronix Digital Library System, v 21c [CD-ROM] (Bellingham, WA: Libronix Corp, 2000-2004).

1 Kings 4:30, "And Solomon"s wisdom excelled the wisdom of all the children of the east country, and all the wisdom of Egypt."

Acts 7:22, "And Moses was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, and was mighty in words and in deeds."

It appears that the largest body of ancient wisdom literature outside the Scriptures comes from Egypt. From the ancient Egyptian period of the Old Kingdom (2686-2160 B.C.), we find wisdom literature in The Instruction of Prince Hardjefed, The Instruction of Kagemni, and The Instruction of Ptahhotep (2450 B.C.). Later, we find The Instruction Addressed to King Merikare (2160-2040 B.C.), where a king gives advice to his son. In the Middle Kingdom, there have been found seven pieces of wisdom literature. In the New Kingdom period (1580-1100 B.C.), The Instruction of Any (c 1100 B.C.) records the wisdom of a father instructing his son about personal conduct, and The Instruction of Amenemope is found to be similar to the book of Proverbs in its structure and in some of its proverbs. Finally, The Instruction of Ankhsheshonq (c 400-300 B.C.) is a piece of Egyptian literature that forms a large collection of about five hundred sayings that deal with the practical and religious concerns of the community. 21]

21] Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature A Book of Readings, 3vols. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1908), in Libronix Digital Library System, v 21c [CD-ROM] (Bellingham, WA: Libronix Corp, 2000-2004).

Perhaps the most famous piece of ancient wisdom literature mentioned above is The Instruction of Amenemope, an Egyptian document written about 1200 to 1300 B.C. This writing is arranged into thirty sayings and compares to a similar arrangement found in Proverbs 22:17 to Proverbs 24:22. This ancient writing also contains proverbs that are similar to those found in the book of Proverbs. 22]

22] Miriam Lichtheim, The Instruction of Amenemope, in Ancient Egyptian Literature: Volume II: The New Kingdom (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973- 80]), in Libronix Digital Library System, v 21c [CD-ROM] (Bellingham, WA: Libronix Corp, 2000-2004).

However, amidst the backdrop of ancient wisdom literature, the book of Proverbs stands alone in its requirement of a personal faith in YHWH alone. To the Jews, wisdom could not be attained outside a life of fear and submission to the Lord. Although other ancient wisdom literature exists, it is obvious that the Proverbs of Solomon excels them all. While others require someone to comply with wise instruction, these divine proverbs require a personal faith in a living God. They give a moral standard of living that excelled that required by other nations. They cover every area of life, remaining as valid today as they did three thousand years ago.

The book of Proverbs gives clear evidence of multiple authorship, as does the book of Psalm. This is because both of these Old Testament books are collections of writings. Solomon is believed to have written a tribute to wisdom ( Proverbs 1:1 thru Proverbs 9:18), his first collections of sayings ( Proverbs 10:1 thru Proverbs 22:16) and his second collection of sayings, which would have been inserted during the time of King Hezekiah ( Proverbs 25:1 thru Proverbs 29:27). It is suggested that Proverbs 22:17 to Proverbs 24:34 consists of proverbs that have Solomon collected from additional wisdom literature. Finally, Proverbs 30:1-33 is introduced by Agur, son of Jakeh and Proverbs 31:1-31 is introduced by King Lemuel.

23] Matthew Henry, Complete Commentary on the Whole Bible, 9 vols. (London: James Nisbet and Co.); Spurgeon provides a list of bishops who contributed to Matthew Henry's commentary. See Charles. H. Spurgeon, Commenting and Commentaries (London: Passmore and Alabaster, 1876), 3.

24] Albert Barnes, Barnes" Notes, Electronic Database (Seattle, WA: Hendrickson Publishers Inc, 1997), in P.C. Study Bible, v 31 [CD-ROM] (Seattle, WA: Biblesoft Inc, 1993-2000).

25] H. A. W. Meyer, Kritisch Exegetisches Kommentar uber das Neue Testament (Gottingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht's Verlag), and Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (London: T. & T. Clarke).

These proverbs were written during a time of peace in the nation of Israel. The name Solomon ( שְׁלֹמֹה) (H 8010) means "peace" (Strong) It is during these eras of peace that a nation abounds in the areas of music, writing, and other arts. This period in the history of a nation produces arts that greatly bless succeeding generations, which is the case with the writings found in this book.

According to the Scriptures, no other person received as much wisdom from God as did Solomon. Yet, in all of his Wisdom of Solomon , he did not live a perfect life. This is because without the fear of the Lord wisdom is not chosen. Like Paul the apostle, Solomon was implanted with more divine revelation than he was able to walk in as a child of God. Neither walked in the fullness of their revelation. Only Jesus Christ walked in the fullness of the wisdom and revelation that God imparted unto Him. All other men have come short of God's glorious ways.

c) Evidence in Other Solomonic Literature- Additional evidence for Solomonic authorship and his desire to compile wise proverbs can be found in the book of Ecclesiastes. In this Old Testament book, Solomon declares his quest for wisdom ( Ecclesiastes 1:13; Ecclesiastes 1:16-18; Ecclesiastes 12:9).

Ecclesiastes 1:13, "And I gave my heart to seek and search out by wisdom concerning all things that are done under heaven: this sore travail hath God given to the sons of man to be exercised therewith."

Ecclesiastes 1:16-18, "I communed with mine own heart, saying, Lo, I am come to great estate, and have gotten more wisdom than all they that have been before me in Jerusalem: yea, my heart had great experience of wisdom and knowledge. And I gave my heart to know wisdom, and to know madness and folly: I perceived that this also is vexation of spirit. For in much wisdom is much grief: and he that increaseth knowledge increaseth sorrow."

Ecclesiastes 12:9, "And moreover, because the preacher was wise, he still taught the people knowledge; yea, he gave good heed, and sought out, and set in order many proverbs."

These verses show Solomon was a man who sought after wisdom. Therefore, to say that Solomon gathered proverbs from other sources is supported by these two verses in Ecclesiastes. It is most likely that King Solomon not only spoke many Proverbs , but also added to his collection a number of proverbs from wise men. This is because wisdom is universal.

There are similar phrases used in the books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. In Ecclesiastes 1:17, the author contrasts the wise man with the fool, as does the book of Proverbs.

Ecclesiastes 1:17, "And I gave my heart to know Wisdom of Solomon , and to know madness and folly: I perceived that this also is vexation of spirit."

Thus, the fact that King Solomon is believed to have authored the books of Ecclesiastes and the Song of Solomon is evidence to his ability to also author the book of Proverbs.

When we think of King Song of Solomon , we think of three major aspects of his life:

1. His Wisdom of Solomon - Thus, the book of Proverbs.

2. His wealth- Thus, the book of Ecclesiastes.

3. His wives- Thus, the Song of Solomon.

These three Old Testament books that credit their authorship to Solomon reveal the three major quests of Solomon"s life. His passion for Wisdom of Solomon , for wealth and for wives taught him the great truths that are recorded in these three books.

2. External Evidence- External evidence outside of the Holy Scriptures for Solomon"s authorship is found in the Apocrypha. The ancient writing of Ecclesiasticus (Wisdom of Solomon) is dated around 180 B.C. It says that Solomon was a great writer of wisdom literature.

Sirach 47:13-17, "Solomon reigned in a peaceable time, and was honoured; for God made all quiet round about him, that he might build an house in his name, and prepare his sanctuary for ever. How wise wast thou in thy youth and, as a flood, filled with understanding! Thy soul covered the whole earth, and thou filledst it with dark parables. Thy name went far unto the islands; and for thy peace thou wast beloved. The countries marvelled at thee for thy Song of Solomon , and Proverbs , and parables, and interpretations."

The Babylonian Talmud says that Hezekiah wrote the books of Isaiah ,, Proverbs ,, Song of Solomon , and Ecclesiastes.

"And who wrote all the books? Moses wrote his book and a portion of Bil'am , xxii.], and Job. Jehoshua wrote his book and the last eight verses of the Pentateuch beginning: "And Moses, the servant of the Lord, died." Samuel wrote his book, Judges , and Ruth. David wrote Psalm , with the assistance of ten elders, viz.: Adam the First, Malachi Zedek, Abraham, Moses, Hyman, Jeduthun, Asaph, and the three sons of Korach. Jeremiah wrote his book, Kings, and Lamentations. King Hezekiah and his company wrote Isaiah ,, Proverbs ,, Song of Solomon , and Ecclesiastes. The men of the great assembly wrote Ezekiel , the Twelve Prophets, Daniel , and the Book of Esther. Ezra wrote his book, and Chronicles the order of all generations down to himself. [This may be a support to Rabh's theory, as to which, R. Jehudah said in his name, that Ezra had not ascended from Babylon to Palestine until he wrote his genealogy.] And who finished Ezra's book? Nehemiah ben Chachalyah." (Babylonian Talmud, Tract Baba Bathra (Last Gate), 1.Mishna 5) 26]

26] Michael L. Rodkinson, New Edition of the Babylonian Talmud, vol 13 (New York: New Talmud Publishing Company, 1902), 45.

This suggestion is strengthened by the fact that some of the proverbs in this passage are similar to an Egyptian writing entitled The Instruction of Amenemope, written about 1200 to 1300 B.C. 27] The fact that King Solomon sought out other sources of wisdom literature is confirmed in Ecclesiastes 12:9-10 :

27] Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature A Book of Readings, 3vols. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1908), in Libronix Digital Library System, v 21c [CD-ROM] (Bellingham, WA: Libronix Corp, 2000-2004).

Ecclesiastes 12:9-10, "And moreover, because the preacher was wise, he still taught the people knowledge; yea, he gave good heed, and sought out, and set in order many proverbs. The preacher sought to find out acceptable words: and that which was written was upright, even words of truth."

Therefore, it is possible that an additional author can be credited to this passage. For this reason, Proverbs 22:17 to Proverbs 24:22 have been called the First Collection of the Sayings of the Wise and Proverbs 24:23-34 to have been called the Second Collection. Scholars suggest that these additional proverbs were gleaned from the wisdom literature of Egypt and from the East, or from within his own kingdom ( 1 Kings 4:30, Acts 7:22).

It is also of interest to note that the same phrase, "the words of the wise," is found in the book of Ecclesiastes within the context of King Solomon"s quest for wisdom ( Ecclesiastes 12:11).

Regarding its canonicity, the New Testament writers quote from the book of Proverbs six times, which supports their belief in its divine authorship.

Of the church fathers, Hippolytus (ANF, v 5) (fragments), Origen (PG v 13) (fragments), Eusebius (PG v 24) (fragments), Didymus the Blind (PG v 39) (portions of verse by verse), Basil (PG v 31) (portions of verse by verse), John Chrysostom (portions of verse by verse), 28] Cyril of Alexandria (PG v 69) (fragment), and Bede (PL v 91) (extensive) wrote commentaries on the book of Proverbs , 29] supporting its important role in the early Church. The early church canons always included it within the list of sacred literature. The book of Proverbs has always been considered of divine inspiration and one of the sacred books in the canon of the Jews as well as Christians.

28] Robert C. Hill, St. John Chrysostom: Commentary on the Sages, vol 2 - Commentary on Proverbs and Commentary on Ecclesiastes (Brookline, MA: Holy Cross Orthodox Press, 2007).

29] John R. Wright and Thomas C. Oden, Proverbs ,, Ecclesiastes ,, Song of Solomon , ed. J. Robert Wright, in Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture: Old Testament, vol. IX, ed. Thomas C. Oden (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2005), xix.

The date of writing of the book of Proverbs can be determined by several factors, the most important being the fact that it was compiled over a period of approximately two hundred fifty (250) years by several authors. A second factor is the observation that its literary style fits a particular period in ancient history. A third factor is that its time of writing can be placed within the period of the "golden age" of Israel, a historical setting that was conducive to the arts and literature.

King Solomon reigned about forty years, from 970 B.C. until 930 B.C. He probably compiled these proverbs during the length of his reign. The historical dates of Agur and King Lemuel are unknown. The fact that the writings of these two men were added last indicates that they wrote in a later period, or perhaps that they were of a lower status than King Solomon.

In the collections of Solomon that Hezekiah copied, we see the same proverb:

In the collections of Solomon that Hezekiah copied, we see the same proverb:

In the collections of Solomon that Hezekiah copied, we see similar proverb:

In the collections of Solomon that Hezekiah copied, we see similar proverb:

One exception to this pattern of duplicated verses is seen in the following two verses:

This issue of duplication suggests that the book of Proverbs is a compilation of several writings, or books, by several authors over several generations. One possible reason that verses are duplicated is that when ancient Jewish scholars were compiling these groups of writings, they did not want to drop any of the proverbs and risk altering the original text, as they considered each and every passage Sacred Scripture.

30] Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature A Book of Readings, 3vols. (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1908), in Libronix Digital Library System, v 21c [CD-ROM] (Bellingham, WA: Libronix Corp, 2000-2004).

We have Scriptural evidence that he sought out such wisdom ( Ecclesiastes 12:9-10).

The fact that Solomon recorded wisdom from other cultures, however, does not take away from the inspiration of these Holy Scriptures, because divine wisdom is universal, and was not limited to the nation of Israel. It was found in many other people besides the Israelites. The book of Job is an example of this, as well as the non-Hebrew writers of chapters 30,31of the book of Proverbs.

These collections of wisdom literature were eventually put together into the book of Proverbs , as we know it today.