Global Exploration Strategy Chapters 1-7
The Moon: our Second Home in the Solar System
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- Implementing the Global Exploration Strategy
The Moon: our Second Home in the Solar System
In the 1960’s robotic spacecraft from the United States and the Soviet Union began the exploration of our Moon. The first soft-landing was made by Luna-9 in 1966, followed by Surveyor, six Apollo human landings and two Lunakhod robotic sample return missions. Thanks to these dramatic successes, lunar material could be examined in laboratories here on Earth. The oldest material proved to be nearly a billion years older than the oldest rocks found here on Earth and the data from the Moon is still our best measurement of the age of any planetary surface. However, much remains to be discovered and understood. Based on the available technology and our understanding of the universe today, the Moon is the first planetary destination for sustained human exploration. It is here that we will learn to live and work without the immediate support of planet Earth and test some technologies necessary for eventual human missions to Mars and beyond. Opportunities made possible by lunar exploration show how the six themes of the Global Exploration Strategy could be implemented. Theme 1: Scientific Knowledge: The pursuit of scientific activities to address fundamental questions about the history of the Earth and Moon, the Solar System and the Universe. Three types of investigations can be supported by lunar exploration: in brief, science ‘of the Moon’, science ‘from the Moon’ and science ‘on the Moon’. Science ‘of the Moon’ will explore lunar geology, geochemistry and geophysics in order to understand the history of the Moon. Current theories suggest that the Moon was created when a body the size of Mars struck the young Earth, throwing vaporized rock into Earth’s orbit. This material later coalesced into the Moon. The Moon is thus an invaluable witness to much of Solar System history: and it has recorded this history more completely and more clearly than any other planetary body. Other big questions include whether or not the Moon and Earth were heavily bombarded by comets and meteorites bearing water – could this have seeded life? And what of the Moon’s makeup – its tectonic history, nature and history of the lunar mantle, the size, composition and existence of its core? To make sense of the data encoded in the Moon, we may need both extensive robotic exploration and sophisticated surveying at sites of high scientific interest by humans. Science ‘from the Moon’ will take advantage of the Moon's lack of atmosphere and radio quiet environment as a stable platform for observing the Earth, the Sun, and the Universe beyond. An example is astronomers interested in a constructing a low frequency radio telescope which would contribute to understanding the early Universe by ‘seeing’ signals emanating from the formation of the first stars, billions of years ago. Science ‘on the Moon’ will investigate the effects of the lunar environment on robotic instruments, equipment and the crews themselves. Exposure on the lunar surface to low gravity, radiation, dust, micrometeorites and wide variations in temperature, will pose numerous challenges for humans and machines. Understanding these effects will allow engineers to develop materials and design systems capable of long-term use by humans in this hostile environment. Theme 2: A Sustained Human Presence Learning how to live and work on another celestial body. To sustain human presence beyond Earth, we must learn from the science ‘on the Moon’ how to live and work on other worlds. A critical step in establishing a sustainable human presence will be to determine whether we can make use of the Moon’s resources, for example, by extracting oxygen from the lunar soil. A local source of oxygen will not only could provide breathable air for the crew’s life support system but potentially also help fuel our spacecraft. Another priority will be to develop techniques that reduce the use of consumables such as air, power and water through efficient recycling systems. This work will build on our experience with the International Space Station and may also teach us how to manage our use of precious resources here on Earth.
Exploring the Moon for commercial benefit will provide new and exciting opportunities for private companies and industries and those which have not even been realized. Increased activity in space and a devotion to driving down the costs of launching and doing business in space have the potential to greatly enhance the use of space. Today we’re starting to see the emergence of these companies, particularly in the case of space tourism as it starts to take on a “bricks and mortar” feel with companies actually building spaceships and spaceports for launching them. Such activities could benefit from the lessons learned from the ISS attempts at commercialization. There are many historical examples where government investment in infrastructure such as railroads, highways, communications satellites and the internet nurtured economic expansion. In some cases - such as the use of aircraft for mail delivery - the government’s commitment as a first customer had an important, catalytic function. By analogy, a sustained human presence by space agencies at the Moon may engage the private sector in space exploration and will drive technological innovation. Economic and social benefits will feed into the wider economy as the new technology is translated into other applications. Theme 4: Global Partnership Strengthening existing and creating new global partnerships A new generation of robotic spacecraft is under development to help increase our knowledge of the Moon and to prepare for future human exploration. Several of these projects already feature international partnership and new possibilities are expected to emerge through the dialogue among partners. A wide range of habitations, science instrumentation, support equipment, robots and transportation will be needed and contributions to the global effort could be made by nations both large and small. Theme 5: Inspiration and Education Engaging, inspiring, and educating the public. As the first human landings inspired an earlier generation, tomorrow’s lunar exploration will inspire enthusiasm and creativity among succeeding generations throughout the world. The Moon has a strong place in the literature and culture of many peoples and an instinctive appeal to the imagination. Life on Earth is linked in many ways with the lifeless Moon, not least through the monthly cycle of the tides. The Moon is the only celestial body that is familiar to all humanity as a ‘place’ and not just a point of light. It seems likely that lunar exploration will continue to inspire enthusiasm and creativity among all generations. Compared with the early days of lunar exploration, the more sophisticated media of today will create novel means to relate the journey of space exploration to all people. For example, we may personally be able to participate in lunar robotic and human exploration through virtual presence technologies. In particular, children can be involved and will be inspired to become the explorers of the future - as scientists, engineers, teachers and entrepreneurs.
Sustainable robotic and human voyages to Mars and more distant destinations will pose many challenges. Astronauts today on the International Space Station are protected from many risks including the vacuum and the extreme temperatures of space, through our ingenuity to build safe habitats and space suits. The Moon as our closest ‘natural space station’ is the ideal place for humanity to take the next step in its quest for developing the capabilities to continue the journey – to Mars and beyond. The Moon is only three days travelling time away from Earth, compared to a minimum of six months for Mars, while the communications delay is only one and a half seconds instead of tens of minutes. Transportation, life support, habitation and advanced robots can all be tried in a challenging environment before their ultimate use. Finally, the human explorers will develop their skills and determine how to prepare their bodies and minds for the long journey ahead. Chapter 5 To Mars and Beyond 
The possibility of humans visiting, exploring and living on Mars may be the most challenging but also the most rewarding objective of space exploration in this century. Although many approaches to such a mission have been studied, its technical and financial feasibility is not yet certain and much preparatory work is needed. At present, the robotic exploration of Mars is proceeding step by step with both orbiters and landers, some of which have the ability to move about (‘rovers’). The first sample return trip mission to an asteroid is already underway and an attempt to land a probe on the surface of a dormant comet will be made in a few years. In the longer term, ambitious robotic missions are being planned to return samples from the surface of Mars and to investigate the ice crust of Europa and the ocean believed to lie beneath it. Thousands of asteroids and comets left-over from the formation of the Solar System circle the Sun in many varying orbits. They have high scientific interest and so are already starting to be explored by robotic spacecraft. Some of the near Earth asteroids could be readily reached by exploration missions. A few asteroids also present a small but catastrophic potential for impacting the Earth, which is a risk that needs better understanding. Thus, while the Moon is the near-term focus for human exploration beyond Earth, the six themes of global space exploration are also valid for Mars and beyond, as the following examples show. Theme 1: Scientific Knowledge The pursuit of scientific activities to address fundamental questions about the origin and the evolution of the Solar System. Among the bodies of our Solar System, Mars is in many ways the most similar to the Earth. Evidence suggests that early in the Solar System’s history, Mars and the Earth were more similar than they are today. However, the reasons for their subsequent divergent evolution are still poorly understood. Questions remain as to whether life could have appeared on Mars or could even still exist today. In terms of studying the Earth, one of the best comparative laboraties exists in Mars. In many ways, the study of Mars provides Earth-bound scientists with a control set as they look at the processes of climate change, geophysics, and the potential for life beyond our own planet. These studies of Mars may also yield important information on how this planet may have evolved from one capable of sustaining life – to the barren world we now see. This information may provide further clues as to how the Earth’s environment has evolved and may change in the future. At present, the focus is upon robotic reconnaissance and surface exploration. In time, we may return material from the shallow sub-surface for examination in terrestrial laboratories using a robotic mission. In the long term, we will need to establish significant capability with humans and robots working together to fully understand the history of the planet and to penetrate underground bodies of water where some form of life might thrive, protected from radiation and the cold of the surface. However, once the possibilities of robotic exploration are exhausted, human exploration may be needed to drill hundreds of metres down for ice core samples to fully understand the history of the planet and to penetrate possible underground bodies of water where some form of life might thrive, protected from radiation and the cold of the surface. Because asteroids and comets are primitive ‘relics’ from the early Solar System, they can provide important clues as to how the planets formed and how water and organic compounds were distributed. The possible role of asteroids and comets in seeding life on Earth is speculative today but the first material to be returned from a comet’s tail is already yielding unexpected results. Future discoveries are certain when pristine material from a comet’s nucleus and from an asteroid can be brought to Earth. More distant destinations such the moons of the giant planets Jupiter and Saturn have outstanding scientific importance, for example, due to the likely presence of liquid water under an ice crust (Europa) and a cold, dense atmosphere containing carbon-based molecules (Titan). Although not realistic targets for human exploration in the coming decades, it is likely that these destinations will become more accessible through the technological gains resulting from sustained space exploration. Theme 2: A Sustained Human Presence Learning how to live and work on another world. Mars is the place in the Solar System where human life could most likely be sustained in the future because of its similarity to Earth, despite the hefty technological challenges that will need to be overcome. It has a thin atmosphere partially shielding it from radiation; the surface temperatures at low latitudes are quite harsh but not unmanageable; and the less than twenty five hour Martian ‘day’ would allow the use of electricity from solar cells to sustain humans until more advanced power sources are available. The potential presence of water ice and maybe liquid water under the surface might make sustained human habitation more practical and self-supporting. It may also be possible to synthesise methane and oxygen rocket propellants from the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and hydrogen from water ice. Theme 3: Economic Expansion Expanding Earth’s economic sphere to encompass the Solar System, and conducting activities with economic benefits to life on Earth [Because of the extreme environment and long communication transmission delays, sophisticated robots are needed to thoroughly understand Mars, the asteroids, comets, Titan and Europa. This will challenge our best brains to create unprecedented skills in autonomous systems and miniaturised instruments. These capabilities may lead to applications here on Earth such as in hazardous environments or in remote locations. Comets and asteroids also present a long-term opportunity because of the natural resources they contain. These raw materials could be used to build the space structures and in generating the rocket fuel that will be required to explore our solar system in the twenty-first century. Some asteroids are nearer to the Earth than Mars and are easier to travel to and return from. Whereas asteroids are rich in the mineral raw materials required to build structures in space, comets are rich in water and carbon-based molecules needed to sustain life. Cometary water ice could even be converted to liquid hydrogen and oxygen, the two primary ingredients in rocket fuel. At present, neither our scientific knowledge nor our technological capability allows us to credibly exploit these resources. However, both the robotic and human space exploration activities now being planned will take us closer to the day when we can.] Theme 4: Global Partnership Strengthening existing and creating new global partnerships. Robotic exploration missions to asteroids and even Mars are affordable for several nations, but greater benefits can be secured by coordinating efforts. This is starting to occur, for example through the existing International Mars Exploration Working Group. In the longer term, the challenges of human exploration of Mars mean that it may only be an achievable goal through sustained international partnership. The historic decision to start such a project is still several years away. However, two important steps towards it are being taken: first, the engagement of more nations in space exploration; and second, the start of global coordination as foreseen in this Framework document. Theme 5: Inspiration and Education Engaging, inspiring, and educating the public. The origin of life on Earth and the existence of life beyond Earth are issues of both scientific and philosophical interest. The combination of such direct questions and the adventure of a human exploration of Mars and beyond engage the imagination of people of all ages. The methodical gathering of data by successive missions in order to test theories and resolve these questions demonstrates the power of the scientific process more clearly than any text book. The possibility that Mars sustains extant life raises ethical issues concerning the backwards and forwards contamination of Mars by robotic and human explorers. An open dialogue between specialists and the general public will be important in order to develop a mutual understanding and to increase awareness of the challenges and benefits of space exploration.
Thus, in parallel with the sustained human exploration of the Moon, this scientific exploration by robotic means of Mars, asteroids and other destinations offers nations the chance to develop important technical and management skills that may later be used in the first human Mars exploration. Chapter 6 Implementing the Global Exploration Strategy
In early 2006, fourteen agencies started to discuss their common interests in space exploration. With different backgrounds, interests and capabilities, the agencies have started to develop a common understanding and language of space exploration. The success of the preliminary discussions has suggested that some formal structure could assist the development and implementation of the Global Exploration Strategy. The strategy needs appropriate tools or mechanisms for interested space agencies to work together and to consult with their stakeholders. The mechanisms need to be flexible and to minimise unwelcome bureaucracy. [They should help co-ordinate global space exploration by: Providing a forum to exchange interests, objectives and plans in space exploration; Developing a common model (the ‘reference architecture’) while respecting national prerogatives for global space exploration activities, drawing on the individual national strategies; ] Promoting interest in space exploration activities; Making use of all available resources, knowledge and technological capabilities; Leveraging on each partner’s individual investments; Aiming to reduce both the gaps and overlaps amongst national programs; Sharing “lessons learned” from national and international missions; Improving the safety of humans in space, for example through inter-operability of life support systems, and; Enhancing the overall robustness of global space exploration. Download 279.97 Kb. Share with your friends:
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