Site: The places people choose to build their settlements
Situation: The location of settlement
Shape: The shape the settlement has (nuclear, dispersed, linear)
Function: The main activities of the settlement
Nucleated settlement: buildings all clustered together around a central point
Dispersed settlement: buildings spread out in no particular pattern like farms or isolated dwellings
Where do/did people choose to site their settlements?
In places which have: water supply, gentle slopes, low altitude, good drainage, no flood risk, resources (such as forests for building)
Case study: Rural settlements and Ethiopia and France
Ethiopia LEDC
Function: Farming maize
Advantages: water from 2 rivers, flat fertile soil, forests. Services built like schools, mosques, a grain mill.
Disadvantages: lack of rain, drought, hunger, starvation, heavy rain comes and then washes away dry soil, no market or shops
Deforestation: due to the forest being cut down the soil is more easily eroded
Solutions: irrigation system and diesel pumps sponsored by American NGO
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France MEDC – changes in rural settlement
Function: farming and tourism
Changes: larger fields, different crops, caravan parks, increased tourism, land sold, young moving to the cities, aging population, decline in services, more English owned businesses.
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Urban settlements:
Settlement hierarchy: settlements put in order of size and services they provide
Sphere of influence: The areas which a settlement serves (how far people are willing to travel to use the services in that settlement)
Low order services: mostly in rural settlements, used frequently and selling basic and cheap products; e.g. bread and milk – need low threshold population
High order services: mostly in or near to urban settlements, used less frequently with products that are not needed on a day to day basis; e.g. televisions – need high threshold population
Threshold populations: The number of customers needed for a business to survive.
Functions of urban settlements
Market town: where farmers buy and sell goods
Port: where goods are loaded and unloaded by ship
Industrial town: where factories are located close to resources or transport on rivers
Resort: where tourists come to enjoy themselves
Case study: The reasons for the growth of an urban settlement: Seville
Where: Spain
Function of settlement: tourism, industry, market town
Original site features: flat fertile land to grow oranges and food, water supply, Mediterranean climate.
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Reasons for growth: close to sea, port leading to gold coming from South America, factories grew along the river, culture and history brought tourism, famous for oranges
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Urban land use
Models: Burgess and Hoyt created models to show how land is usually used in an MEDC based on the value of land. Burgess’ model comes from when cities and towns began to industrialise along rivers for transport and therefore poorer people were forced to live nearer the factories in the centre of the city. Hoyt then modernised the model as factories declined or moved further outside the city as transport improved.
 
CBD: The central business district. You would expect to see: expensive land, high density of buildings, crowded, high order shops, industry (in MEDCs), offices, and flats.
Case study: Urban model Seville
CBD
High order shops e.g. El Corte Ingles, pedestriansed, transport links, metro, underground rail service, offices, small medieval streets
Inner city
Residential areas with flats, rejuvenation of old factory buildings, high density of living spaces, no gardens, transport links and services, offices
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Outer city
Larger houses with gardens, transport links developed, low and high order services, shopping malls as land is cheaper. E.g. Ikea, Aire Sur
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Urbanisation
The movement from the countryside to the city
MEDCs: Took place mainly before the 1950s during the industrial era
LEDCs: Is now beginning to happen in LEDCs because of a) lack of resources in countryside PUSH b) standard of living in urban areas are better PULL
Rural to urban migration
Push: poverty, not enough land, failed crops, high infant mortality, no prospects, loss of farm work, lack of food, drought.
Pull: education, medical care, housing, jobs, shops, money
Problems: noise, dirt, pollution, over crowded, expensive land, low paid jobs
Urban sprawl: Urban settlements extending into the rural urban fringe. Planned in MEDCs, not planned in LEDCs
Case study: Urbanisation in LEDC
USE CASE STUDY FOR RURAL URBAN MIGRATION BRAZIL, SAO PAULO FROM UNIT 1.1
OR:
Case study: The effects of urbanisation / urban sprawl LEDC Case study: Rio de Janiero
Where and what is it?
Rio was formerly the capital of Brazil until the government decided to locate the capital inland in Brasilia.
Approximately 10 million people live in and around Rio.
It is a city of contrasts with rich people living in luxury around Copacabana beach and the vast majority living in poor conditions around the edge of the city.
Problems in the city include housing, crime, traffic and pollution.
HOUSING
An estimated 0.5 million are homeless.
Approximately 1 million live in favelas (informal shanty settlements). Two examples are Morro de Alemao and Rocinha. (YOU MUST KNOW THESE NAMES!!)
Another million live in poor quality government housing on the outskirts.
The favela housing lacks basic services like running water, sewerage or electricity.
The houses are constructed from wood, corrugated iron, broken bricks and tiles or other materials found lying around.
Favelas are often found on land that is steep, by the side of roads, railways etc. and flash floods can destroy such houses and take people’s lives.
At first the government tried to bulldoze such communities but now they remain because of the community spirit, samba music and football etc.
CRIME
Favelas are thought to be associated with drugs, violence etc. Tourists to Rio are warned not to enter favela areas or take valuables to beaches etc.
Some wealthy are moving to new towns to avoid crime.
TRAFFIC AND POLLUTION
Mountains around the city keep the fumes in the city and make the vehicles use a limited number of routes. This results in congestion and noise
A vast amount of rubbish is produced and in favelas this is not collected. Along with open sewerage drains it results in the spread of diseases.
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SOLUTIONS TO THESE PROBLEMS
SELF HELP HOUSING ROCINHA
Most of old temporary wooden houses replaced by brick and tile and extended to use every square centimeter of land.
Many residents have set up their own shops and small industries in the informal sector.
Government has added electricity, paving, lighting, water pipes but the steep hills still restrict.
2. FAVELA BAIRRO PROJECT
1990S government chose 16 favelas to improve using 250 million euros.
Replaced wood buildings with brick and gave each house a yard.
Widened the streets so that the emergency services and waste collectors could get access.
Improved sanitation, health facilities and sports facilities.
Used residents for labour to develop their skills and in return residents paid taxes.
3. NEW TOWN BARRA DA TIJUCA
Land outside to South of Rio was uninhabited until motorway was built in 1970s
Rich moved out of Rio to avoid problems of city
It has 5km of shops, schools, hospitals, offices, places of entertainment etc.
Spacious and luxury accommodation in 10-30 floor high rise apartment blocks with security and facilities or detached houses.
Both adults in each family chose to work in high paid jobs to pay for expensive life.
Families with own cars but also well connected with public transport.
BUT: These areas have own favelas as house keepers, gardeners etc. cannot afford accommodation
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Case study: The effects of urbanisation / urban sprawl and solutions MEDC Case study: Atlanta
Where:
Capital of Georgia, USA
What:
Between 2000 and 2006 there are 1 million more people moved there because of increased birth rate and migration.
Problems:
urban sprawl, traffic congestion, polluted drinking water from overflowing used septic tanks (where your poo goes), farm land bought up, loss of green space and ecosystems, flooding, loss of cultural sites, social divides between poorer inner city and richer outer city, temperatures rising due to removal of trees.
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Solutions:
New public transport system for the inner city, investment into ‘green buildings’ in the centre and on old factory sites; e.g. 5000 flats being built on old steel mill site. Planting more trees around Atlanta and persuading people to move back into the centre with sustainable new buildings.
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Urban problems and solution
Problems:
Cities cannot cope with the growing numbers
Limited housing, services, transport and jobs
Stressful living conditions and protests from residents
Urban decay: parts of city become run down and slum housing appears (think Tres Mil Viviendas), vandalism, derelict housing.
Solutions:
Urban regeneration: rebuilding, renovating old factory sites or derelict houses, knocking down old factory buildings and creating flats, medical centres and offices.
Introducing news transport systems such as elevated railways, undergrounds, metros
Pedestrianised areas for shoppers and workers in the CBD
Urban problems and solutions LEDC: Case study Cairo, Egypt
Where: Egypt, North Africa
Problems:
Rise of population from 2 million to 8 million
Increased demand for piped water, sewers, schools, paved roads, electricity.
Traffic congestion brings noise, air and water pollution.
Lack of housing and lack of jobs
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Solutions:
Satellite towns built outside the city with transport links
Homes and public services upgraded
Metro system built
Greater Cairo Water project to repair sewage system
Ring road built around the city
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Exam style questions
Unit 1.1 and 1.2 IGCSE exam 5 mark describing/explaining and 7mark case study questions:
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Population
Explain the advantages of educating girls and women in LEDCs. (5)
Describe the likely problems for an MEDC, such as New Zealand, of having so many old dependents. (5)
For a named country which you have studied, describe the problems caused by overpopulation. (7)
Name an example of a country which has attracted large numbers of international migrants. Explain the pull factors which have attracted people to your chosen country. (7)
Choose any example of international migration which you have studied and name the countries between which people moved. Explain why many people made the decision to migrate. You should refer both to pull and to push factors. (7)
1.2 Settlement
Describe the typical land uses and characteristics of the CBD of a city. (5)
Suggest how urban growth may have created problems for people in Maseru, the capital city of Lesotho. (LEDC) (4)
Describe the effects of rapid urban growth on the natural environment. (5)
Describe the problems for people using the CBD of a large urban area. (5)
Name a city in an LEDC and describe what has been done to improve the quality of life of the people who live there. (7)
Choose one problem of living in urban areas. For a named urban area, describe the attempts which have been made to solve the problem you have chosen. (7)
Many settlements have grown over the years into large urban areas. For a named example of a large settlement, explain the reasons for its growth. (7)
Unit 2.1 Plate tectonics
The world’s surface if made up of tectonic plates
 
These plates move around due to convection currents in the magma and when they do they causes earthquakes and volcanic eruptions depending on the type of plate boundary the movement occurs on.
Oceanic plate: tectonic plate under the ocean (denser)
Continental plate: tectonic plate under land (less dense)
Converging boundary: (destructive)
Oceanic plate sub ducts under a continental plate = earthquakes, fold mountains and volcanic eruption
OR 2 oceanic plates or 2 continental plates collide = earthquakes and fold mountains
Diverging boundary: (constructive)
Plate move apart from each other = magma escapes gently from the earth forming shield volcanoes
Fold Mountains: e.g. mount Everest
Folding sedimentary rocks left beneath the seas or lakes
Sea or lake beds are squeezed together and pushed upwards over millions of years
Everest is still rising!
Structure and types of volcanoes
Case study: Volcanic eruption LEDC: Mt. Pinatubo volcano in the Philippines 1991 – This was your own choice but if yours is not very good use this one.
Where? South East Asia to the East of China
What?
600 years dormant
Island arc of Luzon in Philippines
Philippines oceanic crust subducting under continental Eurasian plate – i.e. destructive plate margin
Erupted June 1991
Effects: Short term
847 dead
300 killed by collapsing roofs
100 killed by lahars
Aetas tribe refused to leave or died in evacuation centres from disease
1.2 million lost homes
Long term:
Measles, respiratory and gastric diseases
500,000 migrated to Manila
650,000 lost jobs
80,000 ha of cropland destroyed
1 million farm animals died
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Responses:
2 April steam explosions – vegetation killed and dust on villages
PHIVOLCS set up to monitor eruption– 5000 pop evacuated in 10km zone
23 April continuing earthquakes- US Geological Survey set 7 seismographs at Clark Air Base
NW slope villages evacuated
9 June 8 hr eruption with pyroclastic flows – Alert 5 - evacuated to 20km
10 June Clark Air Base evacuated
12 June Mushroom cloud 20km high – evacuated 30km – 58,000 people
15 June – eruption 40km high ash and 80km/hr pyroclastic flows – summit collapses. Heavy rain causes mudflows. Affects houses, bridges and river. Manila airport closed.
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Case study: Volcanic eruption MEDC Mount St Helens
Where:
Mt St Helens is located on a destructive plate boundary where a continental plate (North American) meets an oceanic plate (Juan de Fuca).
What:
18th May 1980 at 8.32am (5.1 on Richter Scale)
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Effects:
All living things wiped out 27km north of the crater, up rooted trees, 57 people dead.
Responses:
Immediate Responses – Mobilising helicopters, rescuing survivors, emergency treatment and clearing ash to allow the flow of traffic
Long Term Responses – Buildings and bridges rebuilding, drainage had to be improved, replanting the forest and rebuilding roads. $1.4 million was spent to transform the area.
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Case study: Earthquake LEDC Haiti
Where: Caribbean near Cuba.
Never major earthquakes before, buildings not built for earthquakes. Capital, Port-au-Prince is overcrowded and poor with people living in crowded conditions.
What:
21st January 2010
Earthquake of 7.0 magnitude
Movement along destructive plate boundary between Caribbean and North Atlantic plates
Effects:
20,000 killed
300,000 injured
Buildings, including house, hospitals, and government buildings destroyed and 1.3 million homeless
People went looting (stealing)
2 million with no water or food or electricity
Outbreak of Cholera from dirty drinking water
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Responses:
Aid supplies from other countries slow to arrive due to bad transport links and airports
USA engineers cleared the roads
USA sent 10,000 soldiers
Temporary tents for housing and 20,000 relocated
Bottled water
Field hospitals
Relies completely on aid and recovery is slow – 1 year later people still living in tents.
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Case study: Earth quake MEDC Kobe, Japan earthquake 1995
Where?
South East Asia
What?
7.2 Richter on 17 January 1995
5.46am
Epicentre 20km south of Kobe in Osaka bay
14km depth so much ground shaking and soil liquefaction
Effects
Short term:
Collapse of elevated roads and bridges e.g. 630m stretch of Hanshin expressway collapsed
103,500 buildings collapsed
Only 20% buildings in CBD usable after earthquake – 62 high rise destroyed and only 19 rebuilt
Port facilities (30% Japans commercial shipping) destroyed by soil liquefaction
Ruptured pipes and poles stopped city’s gas and electricity
6300 deaths – 2900 more from suicides or neglect
35000 injuries
Area of Nagata badly affected – timber framed buildings owned by poor were death traps
60% deaths were over 60 year old people
300 fires in city after gas pipes ruptured
300,000 immediately homeless – 20% of Kobe-
Long term:
95,000 in temporary accommodation 1 year later
$99.3 billion damage and $120 billion needed for reconstruction – only 7% had insurance
20,000 lost jobs
Businesses moved away – Kawasaki shipping and Sumitomo rubber
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Responses:
State’s crisis management very poor
Inadequate communication between government and administrators
People running through street hit by falling debris ignoring fires
5 hr delay calling Self Defence Force / Army – only 200 troops
Only 21 Jan 30,000 troops
Took several days to designate disaster zone
3 days no electricity
Delays in accepting international help – US military based in Japan, foreign medical teams and sniffer dogs
Kobe’s resident’s believed that not at risk
Improvements since then- recovered quickly
Solutions/management:
All school children now have earthquake and drills 4X per year
Earthquake kits can be bought in department stores – bucket, bottle water, food, radio, torch, first aid kit and protective head gear
Earthquake Disaster Prevention Day 1 Sept every year for offices etc.
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Why live in a danger zone?
Fertile soil, limited transport to move away, family lives there; feel they are not in danger, tourism.
Unit 2.2 Weathering
Weathering is the break-up and decomposition of rocks in-situ (in their place of origin). Weathering does not involve the movement of material and this makes it different to erosion.
Erosion is the carrying away of material by a natural force e.g. water, wind, glaciers
Mechanical weathering: (physical) breaking down of rocks due to temperature change or plants (biological weathering)
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