Science, and transportation united states senate

modification groups.

While a contracting firm is customarily responsible for most aspects

of an operational project if funded privately or by State or local tax

assessments, its participation in a Federal research project is more

often limited to one or a few specialized services which it can provide

especially well, based on its unique experience. Such services are usual-

ly of the operations type and include aircraft support, seeding, equip-

ment maintenance, data gathering, or other field services. Some high-

ly specialized companies assist with project design, meteorological

measurements, data analysis, and report preparation. The overall

project planning and design, project monitoring, integration of par-

ticipant responsibilities, and final evaluation are usually managed by

the responsible field personnel of the Federal agency itself, while spe-

cialized analyses, evaluations, and related studies are most often per-

formed by scientists and other experts associated with participating

universities or research organizations.

Weather Modification Organizations

professional organizations

There are three professional organizations in the United States to

one or more of which most weather modifiers and others interested in

weather modification belong and through which scientific, technical,

and legal problems and findings are aired and discusssed. In addition.

17 Ibid., p. 68.

1S See p. 250.

390

v arious other matters are addressed by these groups, including state-

tion, social implications, and professional standards and certification.

These organizations are the Weather Modification Association, the

American Meteorological Society, and the American Society of Civil

Engineers. The first of these three is concerned exclusively with

weather modification, while the latter two represent professional in-

terests and activities across a wide range of meteorological and en-

gineering fields, respectively; however, each of the larger societies has

a committee concerned particularly with weather modification. Two

of these professional organizations are discussed below.

Weather Modification Association

Recently the following four stated purposes of the Weather Modi-

fication Association (WMA) were given in testimony : 19

1. Promotion of research, development, and understanding of

weather modification for beneficial uses ;

2. Encouraging and promoting the highest standards of con-

duct, including certification of individual members qualified to

execute field experiments and operations in weather modification ;

3. Serving as a clearinghouse and dissemination agent for

weather modification oriented literature and information ; and

4. Assuming an active role and maintaining a strong voice in

the production and dissemination of policy statements concerning

all aspects of weather modification practice.

The WMA was conceived in April 1951 at a meeting of weather

modifiers and their clients in Riverside, Calif., called to discuss pos-

sible methods of organizing and controlling weather modification

operations and evaluations in California in order to raise the stand-

ards of those engaged in cloud seeding operations. At that meeting an

organization, tentatively called "The Artificial Precipitation Opera-

tions Association," was formed; a second was held later the same

month and the name was changed to the "Weather Control Research

Association." In the following years the organization developed, its

activities increased, and its membership grew and became more repre-

sentative of other parts of the country. Its current name was adopted

in March 1967. 20

Current membership in the WMA is approximately 250, including

both individuals and corporations interested in the field of weather

modification. Members are mostly from the United States ; however,

there are members from some foreign countries as well. The diverse

interests and backgrounds of the members range from concerned water

users to university professors. 21

The WMA conducts semiannual business and technical meetings,

usually in the West or the Midwest, where weather modification proj-

ects are more common and where the membership is more heavily

represented. The 1977 meetings were held in April in Salt Lake City

and in October in Champaign, 111. The latter meeting was conducted

jointly with the Sixth Conference on Planned and Inadvertent

19 Griffith, Don A.. Thomas J. Henderson. Theodore B. Smith, and Arnett S. Dennis, testi-

mony hefore the U.S. Department of Commerce Weather Modification Advisory Board, Cham-

paign 111.. Oct. 13. 1977.

20 "Background of the Weather Modification Association," the Journal of Weather Modi-

fication, vol. 9, No. 1. April 1977, p. 207.

- l Griffith, et al., testimony hefore the Weather Modification Advisory Board, 1977.

391

which the WMA was one of two cosponsors. The 1978 spring meeting

of the WMA is to be held in Tucson, Ariz.

Beginning in 1969, the WMA has published the Journal of Weather

Modification. While it has been the practice of the association to pro-

duce a single annual issue of the journal in most years, usually in

April, two issues were published in 1975 and 1976. 22 Another recent

publication of the WMA is a brochure, which presents the basic con-

cepts of weather modification, discusses the involvement of various

levels of government, and relates some facts on the WMA itself. 23

Since 1968 the WMA has officially supported the concept of develop-

ing a model law for regulation of weather modification activities at

the State and/or Federal level. A main feature of such a law would be

the establishment of a weather modification board, whose membership

would be selected mainly from the private sector, representing inter-

ests concerned with water resources as they affect agriculture and in-

dustry. The envisioned board would perform various functions such as

licensing, review, and recordkeeping. The WMA also supported the

formation of the Advisory Board on Weather Modification by the

Secretary of Commerce to conduct the study and prepare the report

required by the National Weather Modification Policy Act of 1976. 24

One of the purposes of the WMA is to certify individual members

who are deemed to be qualified to direct weather modification opera-

tions and/or experiments. Certification is granted only upon the

unanimously favorable vote by a certification board, which examines

each applicant in the areas of knowledge, experience, and character.

The WMA considers certification to be desirable in order to "* * *

accomplish other purposes of the association, namely, promoting re-

search and engineering advancement, encouraging and promoting the

highest standards for professional conduct, and assisting in arrang-

ing liability insurance upon application from members performing

operations or experiments." 25 As of April 1977 the WMA had cer-

tified 35 of its "members, the majority of whom are officers and/or

meteorologists with weather modification contractors ; however, others

are associated with universities or w T ith various public and private

organizations. Two of the certified members are Mexican, and the re-

mainder are from the United States. 26

The WMA has been considering the adoption of a statement on

standards and ethics for weather modification operators. A draft

statement, prepared by the WMA committee on standards and ethics,

was presented to the members at the 1977 fall meeting for review and

comment and will be considered for its adoption or further modifica-

tion at the 1978 spring meeting. Copies of the WMA proposed draft

statement on standards and ethics for weather modification operators,

the WMA constitution and bylaws, and the qualifications and proce-

dures for certification by the WMA are all contained in appendix N.

22 The latest available issue of The Journal of Weather Modification is vol. 10, No. 1,

April 1978. All previous issues of the journal are available from the Weather Modification

Association, P.O. Box 8116. Fresno, Calif. 93727.

23 Weather Modification Association. "Weather Modification; Some Facts About Seeding

Clouds." Fresno. Calif.. August 1977, 16 pp.

24 Griffith, et al., testimony before the Weather Modification Advisory Board, 1977,

25 Qualifications and procedures for certification bv the Weather Modification Association,

the .lo-irnal of Weather Modification, vol. 9, No. 1, April 1977, p. 202.

26 "Weather Modification Association : Certified Members," the Journal of Weather Modi-

fication, vol. 9, No. 1, April 1977, p. 208.

392

In July 1977, the Chairman of the U.S. Department of Commerce

WMA to provide testimony on the purposes and activities of the as-

sociation. A series of questions was also forwarded to the WMA, ask-

ing that responses be provided to the Board when its officers appeared

at its October meeting. The responses to these questions, prepared by

the executive committee of the WMA, serve to provide an insight into

the current position of the WMA on weather modification policy is-

sues. The questions from the Weather Modification Board and the

WMA responses follow : 27

A. What should be the role of the Federal Government in support-

ing emergency operations? In supporting long-term location projects?

What should the State role be?

1. What should the role of the Federal Government be in support-

ing emergency operations?

The WMA has had a rather longstanding policy statement relevant

to this subject. The statement was originally prepared a few years ago

when drought conditions in the Midwest began to seriously impact on

the agricultural community. In general, this WMA position dealt with

the feasibility of cloud seeding programs during drought conditions,

the preferred choice of operational capabilities, and the availability of

equipment and professional personnel. The following points sum-

marize the WMA position :

Cloud seeding should not be considered a panacea for drought relief

although the technology may produce some economic benefit if the

programs are properly designed and conducted during drought

periods.

Cloud seeding should be considered one of many water resources

management tools available for use when meteorological conditions

indicate a reasonable potential for beneficial results.

The Federal Government should support emergency operations

through a close interface with individual State agencies. However,

there needs to be a strong recognition that seedable clouds are probably

scarce during drought periods and opportunities may be minimal.

The extensive field experience within the private sector should be

called upon to provide a strong operational input to these emergency

operations if it is finally decided that such programs have a reasonable

chance of producing a beneficial result.

Because of the Federal Government's historic role in weather modifi-

cation research, the appropriate Government agencies should provide

backup capability to these programs in the form of monitor and

evaluation systems. If the Federal Government is to accept respon-

sibility for initiating emergency programs, it must also accept respon-

sibility for potential damage liability covering the results.

2. In support of long-term local projects?

Here again, the WMA has developed over the years some specific

position papers with respect to long-term local programs. Some of the

primary points are: The WMA supports Federal Government inputs

to local long-term programs, particularly if these inputs are research

oriented and are designed to provide information which can improve

future operations plus assist in the careful evaluation of results.

What should the State role be?

27 Griffith, et al., testimony before the Weather Modification Advisory Board, 1977.

393

The WMA supports a strong State role in weather modification.

and administer weather modification activities, the Federal Govern-

ment should encourage and assist these programs, particularly in the

areas of research, monitoring, and evaluations.

States should develop statutes which address licensing and permit

requirements. There is a high priority requirement for strong adminis-

tration of these statutes through a set of rational rules and regulations.

The States should be responsive to cooperative Federal Government

assistance in the form of research activities and should make their pro-

grams available to such "piggy back" activities.

B. Are Federal regulations, permits, licensing, and so forth, desir-

able?

modification activities including times, amounts, locations, and pur-

poses. These activities have been valuable and have apparently not

placed undue burden on most operators. These reporting activities

should be continued with due consideration being given to a consolida-

tion or uniformity of State and Federal reporting requirements to

eliminate unnecessary duplication. No other Federal regulations are

considered to be necessary at this time.

2. Permits to operate are considered to be essential in order to have

a mechanism for resolving potential conflicts in local interests. Because

of the urgent need to respond effectively to these local problems it is

considered necessary that the permits be granted at a State level.

Federal permits do not appear to be a viable solution.

3. Licenses, as well as permits, are granted by a number of States.

The license has the role of passing judgment on the operator, while

the permit is granted on a project basis. The requirements for licensing

are generally very loose in keeping with our limited ability to define

the caliber of the operator in definitive terms. The mechanism for

examining the qualifications of operators, however, exists in a number

of States and can be utilized to screen out the incompetent operators,

if needed. As our ability to evaluate operators becomes more definitive,

the machinery exists to become increasingly demanding of the appli-

cants' qualifications. The licensing function is intimately associated

with the permit process and should stay at the State level for the

present.

4. A principal argument for Federal permits and/or licensing

relates to interstate transport of seeding material and potential extra

area effects. The few cases of this type which have arisen have been

handled on a case basis. At such time as the regular seeding operations

become more widespread and when the evidence of downwind effects

becomes better documented, the need for the Federal licensing or

permit process may become apparent. For the time being, it is the

opinion of the WMA that the process should be left in State hands but

be made more uniform so as to include separate licensing and permit

functions.

5. The concept of an independent, licensed designer for each project

was vigorously opposed by a number of WMA members. These mem-

bers felt that the required expertise for the proper design of a specific

program frequently rested within one individual group by reason of

394

the outside, could not be expected to know the specific meteorology

and terrain of each area as well as those already experienced in the

area or in similar storm types. There was no objection expressed by

this group to the concept of a licensed group or individual within the

group being required for project design. The concept of an independent

designer with infinite wisdom for a variety of projects, however, was

st rongly re j ect ed .

A further consideration is the damage that such a concept would

have to the opportunities for growth in technical competence for the

private weather modification operator. Importation of the outside

designer would severely restrict the operator from developing the in-

ternal technical stature and strength so vital for the development of

competency in the field.

C. Are there established professional standards for weather modi-

fiers? Does the WMA have an active ethics review process?

Although there are no established standards for weather modifiers,

this matter has received considerable attention within the WMA. At

the 1977 spring meeting an ad hoc Committee on Standards and Ethics

was established. Two meetings of the committee with some correspond-

ence in the interim resulted in a draft statement which was submitted

to the membership at the 1977 fall meeting on October 10. The draft

was referred back to the ad hoc committee and is expected to come up

again at the 1978 spring meeting. The code of ethics contained in the

proposed statement covers relationships between WMA members and

governmental agencies, the general public, clients, and other members

of the meteorological profession. While there has been no active ethics

review process so far, it is expected that such a process will be activated

following adoption of a code. The proposed statement also sets forth

standards for individual projects, covering such points as staffing,

public disclosure of methods, and the need for evaluation.

For the last several years, the WMA has sought to improve profes-

sional standards by a certification program. It is hoped that this cer-

tification program will be strengthend by the adoption of a code of

ethics and a statement of requirements for individual projects.

D. Is communication between, weather modification pperators and

scientsts a problem? If so, how can it be improved?

The WMA has provided an effective channel for communications

between weather modification operators and scientists. These individ-

uals come from diverse backgrounds. In addition to twice yearly meet-

ings, the WMA publishes an annual Journal of Weather Modification

which receives widespread distribution.

Communications between operators and scientists could, of course,

be improved. The need for improved communications is due in part

to the expansion of weather modification operations and the recent

increased awareness of man's impact on his environment.

Other means of communications available (outside of the WMA)

include the scientific literature, scientific conferences, personal contact,

and the publication of informational pamphlets and policy statements.

Interdiscipline conferences on weather modification should be en-

couraged. Scienl ists should be directly exposed to field programs when-

ever possible to gain firsthand knowledge of the modification tech-

395

niques employed and the problems encountered by the weather modi-

American Meteorological- Society

The stated purposes of the American Meteorological Society (AMS)

are : The development and dissemination of knowledge of meteorology

in all its phases and applications, and the advancement of its profes-

sional ideals. The society shall be a nonprofit organization and none of

its net income or net worth shall inure to the benefit of its members. In

event of dissolution, any property belonging to the society shall be

donated to some organization or organizations of a similar purpose

and character, and in no event shall any of such property be distributed

to members of the society. 28

Members of the AMS number about 900 and include meteorologists

and other scientists whose interests and activities cover the complete

range of atmospheric sciences and services, well beyond the scope of

weather modification. The organization of the AMS was recently re-

viewed in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 29 Con-

siderable attention has been given to weather modification within the

AMS, however, and a number of its members are or have been partici-

pants in research and operational aspects of the field. While some

AMS members are engaged full-time in weather modification activi-

ties others are partly or intermittently involved, depending upon their

current interest, research funding, or particular management respon-

sibilities.

The AMS took an early interest in weather modification when it

was urged by the Director of the Weather Bureau to look into what

were considered extravagant claims of Langmuir on the effects of his

cloud seeding operations. 30 Accordingly, the AMS issued its first pol-

icy statement on weather modification, which was somewhat conserva-

tive in tenor, and. without refuting Langmuirs claims directly, stated

that it was not yet proven that cloud seeding could produce econom-

ically significant amounts of rain. 31

The AMS provides a means for exchange of ideas and findings, par-

ticularly in the research aspects of weather modification, through its

journals and other publications, through professional meetings, and

through the deliberations within its committees and governing bodies.

The society has a Committee on Weather Modification, established in

1968, which is quite active and has from time to time produced public

statements on the state of the art of weather modification. Some of

these have been adopted by the council of the AMS, the most recent

one in January 1973. (Policy statements of the AMS may not neces-

sarily coincide with those of its subordinate committees, such as the

one on weather modification.) The 1973 AMS policy statement is re-

produced in appendix O ; it summarizes the status of planned weather

modification, inadvertent weather modification, public issues, and rec-