International trends in the education of students with special educational needs
Approaches to Implementing Inclusive Education1
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- 13.5 Evaluating Inclusive Education Inputs
13.4 Approaches to Implementing Inclusive Education1As Skrtic et al. (1996) pointed out, inclusive education goes far beyond the physical placement of children with disabilities in general classrooms. Rather, as many writers have emphasised, it requires nothing less than transforming regular education by promoting school/classroom cultures, structures and practices that accommodate to diversity (Christensen, 1996; Department of Education, 2001; Dyson et al., 2003; Shaffner & Buswell, 1996). In implementing inclusive education, attention should be paid to three levels: the broad society and education system, the school and the classroom. Societal and education system level. At this level, factors such as the following have been identified as playing important roles: (a) the policy context of the wider community (Dyson, et al. 2003), (b) collaboration between government agencies and between them and non-government organisations, and (c) collaboration among educators, parents, peers, other school personnel, and community agency personnel (Department of Education, 2002; King-Sears, 1997). To bring about inclusion, according to Oliver (1996), changes must take place at all levels of society. These include differences becoming positively valued, education systems becoming morally committed to the integration of all children into a single education system, schools becoming welcoming environments, teachers becoming committed to working with all children, curricula becoming freed of ‘disablist’ content, and disabled people being given skills to enter the labour market. School level. At this level, the key question is what evidence is there that mainstream schools can act in ways that enable them to respond to student diversity to facilitate participation by all students in the cultures, curricula and communities of those schools? After extensively reviewing the literature on this topic, Dyson et al. (2003) were able to find only six studies that provided trustworthy evidence relevant to this question. In determining the extent to which schools facilitate (or inhibit) inclusion, two school-level themes ran through these studies: the importance of school culture (e.g., the values and attitudes held by staff) and leadership and decision-making. School leadership was also emphasised by Ainscow (1995), Schaffner & Buswell (1996) and Stanovich & Jordan (1998). The latter found that the strongest predictor of effective teaching behaviour in inclusive education settings in Canada was the subjective school norm as operationalised by principals’ attitudes towards heterogeneous classrooms1 . Developing school support networks has also been identified as an important facilitator of inclusive education (Ainscow, 1995; Shaffner & Buswell, 1996), as has encouraging a strong sense of community with professionals and paraprofessionals working collaboratively with parents (Skrtic et al., 1996). Classroom level. Of course, the success or otherwise of inclusive education critically depends on what takes place minute-by-minute in regular classrooms. Inclusive education does not mean the coexistence of one programme for a student with special educational needs and another for the other students. Rather, it implies changing the programme and teaching approaches for all students in a class. In this sense, inclusive education is something of an educational Trojan Horse, since it involves not only accommodating regular classroom programmes and teaching strategies to the needs of SWSEN, but also making adjustments to meet the diverse needs of other students in the class. In general terms, this means teachers adopting student-centred pedagogy, as distinct from curriculum-centred pedagogy (McDonnell, 1998; UNESCO, 1994). 2 Inclusive education also requires close collaboration between regular class teachers and a range of other people, including specialist teachers, teaching assistants, therapists, and parents. Features of consultation models that have been advocated include (a) the regular classroom teacher having primary responsibility for students’ overall programmes, (b) equal professional status of the regular teacher and the specialist teacher, (c) the involvement of parents in decision-making and planning (Antia et al., 2002)1 , (d) teaching assistants working in partnership with teachers to provide supplementary, but not the sole, input to SWSEN, and (e) most additional support being provided in situ, rather than through withdrawal (Davis & Hopwood, 2002). 13.5 Evaluating Inclusive Education InputsElsewhere, the writer has developed the theme that inclusive education is a multi-faceted concept which involves giving consideration to vision, placement, curriculum, assessment, teaching, acceptance, access, support, resources, and leadership, as portrayed in Figure 13.1 (Mitchell, 2015b). For each of these ten inputs, a criteria and indicators are outlined. These will be briefly summarised below. Figure 13.1. Model of inclusive education 
Vision. Inclusive education depends on educators at all levels of the system being committed to its underlying philosophy and being willing to implement it. This means that education systems and schools should articulate an inclusive culture in which ‘there is some degree of consensus … around values of respect for difference and a commitment to offering all pupils access to learning opportunities’ (Ainscow and Miles, 2008, p.27). Criterion Educators at all levels of the system are committed to the underlying philosophy of inclusive education and express a vision for inclusive education in legislation, regulations and policy documents at all levels of the education system. Indicators The principal/head teacher of the school consistently expresses a commitment to inclusive education. Other senior members of the school leadership are committed to inclusive education. The school’s board/governing body is committed to inclusive education. The national/ regional/ local bodies responsible for education are committed to inclusive education. 2. Placement. Most scholars of inclusive education either explicitly or implicitly state that inclusion refers to the placement of all students in regular schools and classrooms, regardless of their level of ability (Luciak and Biewer, 2011). Criterion All learners with special education needs are educated in age-appropriate classes in their neighbourhood schools, regardless of their ability. Indicators All learners with special educational needs attend their neighbourhood school. They are placed in age-appropriate classes. They are withdrawn for additional assistance no more frequently than other learners in the class. 3. Adapted Curriculum. Elsewhere, the writer has argued that making appropriate adaptations or modifications to the curriculum is central to inclusive education (Mitchell, 2014b). Such a curriculum should be a single curriculum that is, as far as possible, accessible to all learners, including those with special educational needs. (Conversely, special educational needs are created when a curriculum is not accessible to all learners.) s wellit should include activities that are age-appropriate, but are pitched at a developmentally appropriate level. Since an inclusive classroom is likely to contain students who are functioning at two or three levels of the curriculum, this means that multi-level teaching will have to be employed; or, at a minimum, adaptations will have to be made to take account of the student diversity. (See also Chapter Ten of this review.) Criterion The standard curriculum is adapted or modified so that it suits the abilities and interests of all learners. In the case of learners with special educational needs, this means the curriculum content is differentiated so as to be age-appropriate, but pitched at a developmentally appropriate level. Indicators The curriculum is broadly similar for all learners (i.e., there is not a separate curriculum for learners with special needs). The curriculum is adapted to take account of the abilities and interests of different groups of learners. The principles of Universal Design are employed in the development of curricula.(See also Chapter Twenty-four of this review.) 4. Adapted Assessment. Just as learners with special educational needs are expected to participate and progress in the general curriculum, albeit with appropriate modifications and adaptations, so, too, are they increasingly being expected to participate in a country’s national or state assessment regimes. (See also Chapter Eleven of this review.) Criterion The content of assessment reflects any adaptations to the curriculum. As well, the means of assessment is adapted to take account of the abilities of all learners. Assessment of learners with special educational needs results in individual educational plans. Indicators The content of assessment tasks reflects any adaptations made to the curriculum. Assessment tasks take account of the abilities of all learners. For example, a blind learner is assessed via Braille or orally, a deaf learner via sign language, etc.. Learners with special educational needs have individual educational plans, which form the basis of their assessment. 5. Adapted Teaching. Educators are increasingly expected to be responsible not only for helping students to achieve the best possible outcomes, but also for using the most scientifically valid methods to achieve them. (See also Chapter Twelveof this review.) Criterion As appropriate to the composition of classes and the needs of individual learners, the teaching strategies described by Mitchell (2014) are adopted. Indicators A substantial number of the classroom focused teaching strategies outlined by Mitchell (2014b) are utilised, where appropriate. Teachers utilise data on learner outcomes to design and evaluate their teaching strategies. 6. Acceptance. The education system and the school recognise the right of learners with special educational needs to be educated in general education classrooms and to receive equitable resourcing. Acceptance is not only a matter of recognising the rights of such learners, but also, ideally, that teachers and fellow students accept human diversity at a philosophical level and that they accept individuals with special educational needs socially and emotionally. Criterion The education system and the school recognise the right of learners with special educational needs to be educated in general education classrooms, to receive equitable resourcing and to be accepted socially and emotionally. Indicators The school board/governing body recognise the rights of learners with special educational needs to inclusive education. The national/ regional/ local bodies responsible for education recognise the rights of learners with special educational needs to inclusive education. The principal/head teacher and other staff members recognise the rights of learners with special educational needs to inclusive education. The school accepts individual learners with special educational needs socially and emotionally. 7. Access. Access is a very broad concept which includes providing adequate physical access to and within classrooms and ensuring that all the elements of the indoor physical environment that may affect students’ ability to learn are optimal. Criterion Adequate physical access to and within classrooms is provided, with such features as ramps and lifts, adapted toilets, doorways that are sufficiently wide to take wheelchairs, and adequate space for wheelchairs to be manoeuvred in classrooms. As well, the design and arrangement of furniture, acoustics, lighting, temperature, and ventilation take account of individual learners’ needs. Indicators The school has adequate physical access features to accommodate people with physical disabilities and visual impairments, e.g., ramps, adapted toilets, adapted playground equipment, and accessible footpaths/sidewalks. Interior design includes doorways sufficiently wide to accommodate wheelchairs and desks/tables that can be adjusted to suit the needs of learners with physical disabilities. Classrooms have appropriate lighting, acoustics, temperature and air quality. 8. Support. Educating learners with special educational needs requires collaboration among many people – several professionals and parents in particular. Indeed, there are few areas of education that call upon so much collaboration and teamwork. This is particularly true in inclusive education where, ideally, general classroom teachers may work with various combinations of specialist teachers; paraprofessionals; special needs advisers; educational psychologists; therapists and other specialists; community agencies such as welfare services, police and advocacy groups; paraprofessionals; technology consultants; and, of course, parents. Criterion A team of professionals provides adequate and appropriate support for teachers. Ideally, this team consists of (a) a general educator, receiving advice and guidance from (b) a specialist adviser, access to (c) appropriate therapists and other professionals (e.g., psychologists, hearing advisers, social workers, physiotherapists, speech and language therapists, and occupational therapists), and (d) assistant teachers/ paraprofessionals, learning support assistants, or teacher aides. The composition of such teams varies according to the needs of the particular learners. Teams should receive appropriate training to carry out their responsibilities. The school should adopt a response to intervention model. Indicators Teachers have access to specialist adviser(s), appropriate therapists and other professionals (e.g., psychologists, hearing advisers, social workers, physiotherapists, speech and language therapists, and occupational therapists), and assistant teachers/ paraprofessionals/ teacher aides. Team members receive training to engage in collaborative arrangements (see Chapter Twenty of this review). The school implements a response to intervention model (see Chapter Seven of this review). 9. Resources. Clearly, for the multi-faceted approach to inclusive education outlined in this scale to be implemented, adequate resources must be provided. These include resources to cover the cost of buildings, equipment, transport and personnel. For the past decade or so, funding models for special education have been under review in many countries, driven by rising costs, concerns over efficiency and equity in the use of resources, and concerns about the incentives inherent in funding formulae for contra-indicated practices. Criterion Adequate and appropriate equipment and appropriate levels of staffing are provided. Indicators The national/regional/local education system makes available to the school sufficient resources for it to meet its inclusive education obligations. The school board/governors ensures that resources are delivered to the school and are utilised for the purposes for which they are intended. The school managers ensure that sufficient resources (material and personnel) are available at the classroom level. 10. Leadership. Creating a positive school culture, or ethos, involves developing and implementing goals for the school. These goals should reflect the shared values, beliefs, attitudes, traditions and behavioural norms of its members, particularly those who are in leadership positions. Leadership should be exercised throughout an education system: by legislators, policy-makers, school governing bodies, principals and teachers. Criterion Those who are in leadership positions show a strong commitment to accepting and celebrating diversity, a sensitivity to cultural issues, and set high, but realistic, standards. Indicators The school leadership consistently articulate the philosophy and goals of inclusion The school leadership provides encouragement and recognition to staff member who promote inclusion. The school leadership seeks adequate resources to further inclusion and ensures they are fairly distributed The school leadership identifies barriers to inclusion and actively seeks to overcome them. The school leadership regularly monitors the processes and outcomes of inclusion. Two other approaches to evaluating inclusive education are worthy of discussion. The first of these is the Index for Inclusion, a set of materials to guide schools through a process of inclusive school development. It is about building supportive communities and fostering high achievement for all staff and students.The Index takes the social model of disability as its starting point, builds on good practice, and then organises around a cycle of activities which guide schools through the stages of preparation, investigation, development and review. It describes inclusion in education as: Valuing all students and staff equally. Increasing the participation of students in, and reducing their exclusion from, the cultures, curricula and communities of local schools. Restructuring the cultures, policies and practices in schools so that they respond to the diversity of students in the locality. Reducing barriers to learning and participation for all students, not only those with impairments or those who are categorised as `having special educational needs'. Learning from attempts to overcome barriers to the access and participation of particular students to make changes for the benefit of students more widely. Viewing the difference between students as resources to support learning, rather than as problems to be overcome. Acknowledging the right of students to an education in their locality. Improving schools for staff as well as for students. Emphasising the role of schools in building community and developing values, as well as in increasing achievement. Fostering mutually sustaining relationships between schools and communities. Recognising that inclusion in education is one aspect of inclusion in society. The Index is organised into three categories: creating inclusive cultures, producing inclusive policies, and evolving inclusive practices. Each section contains up to eleven indicators and the meaning of each indicator is clarified by a series of questions. Another evaluation instrument was developed by New Zealand’s Education Review Office (ERO) (2010) to ascertain the extent to which schools were including SWSEN with high needs (who make up approximately 3% of the student population). Thirteen categories were employed, each with sets of indicators. In part, these were derived from the Index for Inclusion. Examples of these are as follows: Enrolment and induction The school welcomes students with high needs The school is prepared to make appropriate changes to support a student with high needs (i.e. has not suggested to parents that children would be better off elsewhere) Identifying student needs and strengths The school has high quality processes in place for identifying the educational needs of students with high needs. The school has high quality processes in place for identifying the educational needs of students with high needs. The school has sought and used the student’s point of view with regard to what supports their inclusion and learning. The school has used valid and reliable methods to identify the interests and strengths of students with high needs in order to fully support their learning and development. The school has processes in place for identifying the needs of students in relation to any physical, sensory, neurological, psychiatric, behavioural or intellectual impairments. School personnel understand that it is their role to adapt to the needs presented by a student – rather than ‘fit’ the student to their school. Links with families The school respects and values the knowledge parents have of their child’s learning, development and achievement. Feedback to families includes a celebration of success and is not focused on negatives or a sense of ‘failure’. Parents are included in any IEP processes and provided with regular feedback about their child’s progress and how they might complement school-based learning at home. Coordination of services and support The school has coordinated an appropriate range of services or personnel in support of any specialised needs presented by students with high needs. The coordination and monitoring of specialist services and support for students with high needs is given high status in the school, e.g. it is overseen by an effective, senior member of staff. Teachers share their knowledge of the needs, likes, interests and specialist support requirements of students as they progress through the school, from year to year (i.e. there is a formal process of planning for students as they progress from teacher to teacher) School-wide culture The board of trustees and principal emphasise the importance of an inclusive culture through their comments, policies, processes, resourcing and planning. The principal provides ethical leadership for the school on the importance of meeting the diverse needs of all students, including students with high needs. There is a school-wide emphasis on meeting the needs of all students, including students with high needs. The board has invested in appropriate resources to support inclusion (this includes the board using special education funding and staffing (ORRS, Learning Support etc.) to support students with high needs. Regular students have been provided with coaching, support and modelling to appropriately relate to students with high needs. There is an absence of bullying (especially towards students with high needs). There is evidence that the school has adapted its physical environment to meet the needs of current students with high needs. Relationships with peers The relationships students with high needs have with their peers are supportive. Students with high needs have their social development supported as required. Students with high needs have friendships with regular students. Students with high needs are included in social events in and outside of the school (e.g. school socials, birthday parties). Classroom teaching Students with high needs learn alongside their peers in regular classes as much as possible. Learning programmes support the objectives identified in IEPs or other planning Students with high needs have well-planned learning experiences, not just ‘busy work’. Teaching is planned and differentiated with the learning of all students in mind. Lessons encourage students with high needs to participate and interact. Students with high needs work cooperatively along with other students. Teacher aides support teachers to include students with high needs. Extra-curricular involvement Students with high needs take part in sporting and cultural activities alongside regular students at the school. Students with high needs take part in physical activity (where appropriate) and other learning activities outside the classroom. Learning supports The school has resourced high quality physical and educational support for the range of needs demonstrated by students with high needs. The effectiveness of learning supports are monitored. Learning support is coordinated with IEPs, and well developed objectives for student learning and development. Professional development and support Staff receive high quality professional development to understand and support the specific learning needs of particular students with high needs. Professional development and support is readily accessible. Professional development for teachers and teacher aides supports their ability to teach students with diverse needs. Culturally responsive The school has culturally responsive processes to identify and support the needs and aspirations of Maori and Pacific students with high needs and their whanau/families. The achievement of students with high needs There are high expectations for all students (including students with high needs). The achievements of students with high needs reflect deep and/or meaningful learning. Students with high needs are making progress in their IEPs and/or any particular academic, intellectual, behavioural, communication, social or physical goals agreed to be appropriate. The benefits to mainstream students Students without high needs demonstrate tolerance, warmth, understanding and friendship to students with high needs in their classrooms. Parents, whanau and the wider school appreciate the benefits for all students of their children working with students with high needs. 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