Kongo across the Waters
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- Metal Helmet Found on Kongo Grave
- Carved Tusk Made into a Stamp
- Mask of the Nganga Diphomba
- Figure of a Kneeling Man
- Nkisi Medicines
- Minkisi to Regulate Trade
- Anthropomorphic Power Figure, nkisi Manyangu
- Dance Scepter, Thafu Maluangu
- Box, Nkobe Lemba
- Two Figures, Lemba Couple
- Bell with Three Clappers
- Zoomorphic Power Figure, nkisi Mawenze
Ivory Scepter Woyo people Lower Congo, DRC 19th century Ivory Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.1979.1.260 Intricate geometric patterns fill the top four registers of this scepter – variations of interlace, rosettes and abstracted human faces. The lowest register, left rather plain, is adorned with elegantly worked scallops. Such mastery of geometric decoration has long been demonstrated by Kongo artists in the surface carving of ivory trumpets, the weaving of fine raffia textiles and mats and beautifully created baskets. Flywhisk Yombe people Boma, Lower Congo, DRC Early 20th century Wood, buffalo tail, brass Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.1971.70.1-1 Spoon Yombe people Lower Congo, DRC 20th century Wood Collection of Hyatt and Cici Brown Elaborately carved flywhisks and spoons were part of a Yombe chief’s regalia. A buffalo tail flywhisk is an essential symbol of chiefly power. This flywhisk pairs the clasped hands with a pattern of bisected lozenges, signifying the worlds of the living and the dead. Through this iconography, the flywhisk identifies the chief as negotiator between diverse realms. The spoon bears an image of a standing figure with a munkwisa root in his mouth and a severed human head in his left hand. The bitter root is associated with the power of chiefs, who prove their spiritual prowess by chewing on it during investiture ceremonies. Metal Helmet Found on Kongo Grave Probably French Collected in Northern Angola 19th century Bronze Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.1953.74.156 In the early 1950s the Belgian ethnologist Albert Maesen purchased a remarkable bronze helmet in a village in the north of Angola. The helmet was found on the grave of an important nineteenth century Kongo chief, called Ne Longo, who had died in 1860. It was placed on top of an old English cannon that was standing upright. According to local informants, the helmet was of French manufacture. The helmet’s front is decorated with a scaly motif in bas-relief, which may be an imitation of the skin of a pangolin. The addition on top of it probably represents its tail. The back of the helmet shows a bas-relief of a kneeling man surrounded by plants and flowers. The object was presumably taken to Africa to satisfy the desires of African merchants and chiefs to possess extraordinary and bizarre objects. Carved Tusk Made into a Stamp Vili people Lower Congo, DRC 19th century Ivory, metal Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.1953.26.18 This is a small example of a Loango ivory, made from the tip of an elephant’s tusk. A metal stamp has been affixed to its base. The stamp itself appears to be a stylized representation of an eagle. The carving, the figures’ style, and the characteristic spiraling narrative that reads from the base to the top situate this ivory among a corpus of similar examples from West Central Africa. The details depicted here show various aspects of the slave trade. Unlike other examples, this scene does not include references to aspects of European dress or European trade objects and appears to be strictly situated within Kongo. Toby Jug Made in England Collected in Zaire (province), Angola 19th century Stoneware Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.1953.74.163 Toby Jug Head Kongo people Lower Congo, DRC 19th century Terracotta Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.1949.1.18-1 European pottery imported in Kongo in the nineteenth century included peculiar forms like the English Toby jug. Europeans traded them for African wares as early as the 1830s. They represent the popular eighteenth-century drinking character Toby Philpot. In Kongo they were put on graves to indicate the prominent status of the deceased as a successful merchant or chief. The Toby jug here is one of the earliest examples found in Lower Congo. It was originally made in a Staffordshire pottery in the 1820s or 1830s. It corresponds to a type called “the soldier,” dressed in a red long coat with yellow buttons, yellow trousers and a tricorn hat. Toby Philpot also inspired Kongo potters to make their own copies as is shown here by an interesting terracotta fragment. Initiation In Kongo an individual’s success depended greatly on his or her membership in multiple associations, some of which required a process of initiation. Initiation often involved the adoption of a new name, the learning of an esoteric vocabulary and the right to wear the material tokens of membership. Early twentieth-century observers left descriptions of the Khimba and Kimpasi initiation for boys. Girls went through an initiation called Kumbi. The most influential association was Lemba, whose emergence in the coastal regions north of the Congo River was connected to the Atlantic trade. In an increasingly decentralized society, Lemba addressed the contradictions between a prevailing egalitarian ideology shared by free Kongolese and the accumulation of wealth by successful individuals. The initiation involved the composition of a healing nkisi, a marriage ceremony, and the establishment of a strong father-child relationship with the Lemba priest. The ethos of healing, marriage, and paternity worked as an antidote against the envy of others. The multiple stages of initiation also required Lemba initiates to redistribute their wealth periodically. Attributed to the Master of Kasadi Mayombe, Lower Congo, DRC
Early 20th century Wood, skin, hair, white clay, pigment Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.37966 Attributed to the Master of Kasadi Mayombe, Lower Congo, DRC
Early 20th century Wood, glass Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.24662 Some Kongo artists developed highly recognizable personal styles. Their names were seldom recorded but comparative stylistic analysis has identified some of them and given them a new name. Such was the fate of the “Master of Kasadi,” whose signature can be read in a number of distinct stylistic features. The big eyes rimmed with a lenticular relief, the hollow cheeks with prominent cheekbones, the open mouth with the filed teeth and the strong chin reveal the master’s hand. The Master of Kasadi was first discovered as the author of a series of mother and child figures collected between 1911 and 1913. The bearded white mask, which belonged to a nganga of nkisi Diphomba, is one of his creations collected in Kasadi – the village after which he was posthumously named. Figure of a Kneeling Man Yombe people Mayombe, Lower Congo, DRC Early 20th century Wood, glass Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.32390 Wood carvers made figures that were particularly fit to be turned into a charm or nkisi by a ritual practitioner or nganga. They left room for the addition of the “nkisi medicines” on the belly and on the head of the figure. Other meaningful clues included the munkwisa root held between the teeth and the scepter or fly whisk in the left hand of the figure, both symbols of the power of a chief. The bright eyes and the lively kneeling pose further contributed to the overall visual impact of the figure as something alive and powerful. This object would have appealed to a nganga but it was collected before it was transformed into a nkisi. Voania Muba (Woyo, d. 1928) Lower Congo, DRC
Early 20th century Terracotta Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.20241-2 In a village called Muba, in the region of the old Ngoyo kingdom, a remarkable artist exemplified the emergence of Kongo artists as self-conscious individuals in the early twentieth century. He specialized in figural pottery and his art is preserved in many museums and private collections around the world. He usually mounted one or two standing, sitting, or kneeling human figures on a bowl, modeling them with almond-shaped eyes and a delicate smile, and using incisions to suggest eyebrows and neatly combed hair. He consequently signed his works in block letters, marking his name with single or double lines in the wet clay: VOANIA MUBA Headdress Kongo people Boma, Lower Congo, DRC Early 20th century Wood, pigment Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.17695 Boma was a vibrant commercial and political center in the early colonial period, offering opportunities to both European and African entrepreneurs. Kongo artists found new inspiration in the outward show of the colonial state, with its uniforms, gadgets and parades. A skillful artist in Boma made this fancy headdress in wood, inspired by a colonial cap. The sides and the top are embellished with a red snake and a leopard, both important creatures in Kongo mythology. The RMCA collection holds a wooden imitation of a brass instrument most likely from the same artist, with a similar red snake added to it.
A nkisi (pl. minkisi) is a type of object for which no equivalent word exists in European languages. It is essentially a container for an ancestral spirit and for “medicines” that were selected by a ritual expert during the composition of the nkisi. The container could take many forms, including an anthropomorphic or zoomorphic sculpture. The ancestral spirit took possession of it during the elaborate composition ritual. The selection of the medicines was guided by visual and linguistic metaphors, besides other principles. They were considered essential to the nkisi’s effectiveness as a device for healing or spiritual protection. A nkisi was most often associated with one or several diseases, which it could both inflict and cure. A successful nkisi operator (nganga) had many clients who paid him a fee for his services. Nkisi Medicines The power of a nkisi is in its “medicines,” a variety of additions of vegetal, animal or mineral origin. They were carefully selected for their metonymic or metaphorical attributes during the process of the nkisi’s composition. The ritual expert usually included a number of medicines that were understood by most of the people. Other elements were more esoteric and underscored the unique and sophisticated knowledge that he or she possessed of the ways of the nkisi.
The enforcement of trade agreements and the protection of the traders’ property rights happened in part through the manipulation of charms, called minkisi (sing. nkisi). Minkisi were thought of as containers for powerful ancestral spirits and some were carved in wood in the form of a tall human being. Mabiala Mandembe, Mangaaka and Kozo were among the powerful minkisi used for sealing trade agreements and hunting down thieves. European merchants noted the effect of an oath passed in front of – or “hammered into” – such minkisi, and they occasionally made use of them as well. In the mid-1870s, Alexandre Delcommune had the “war fetish” of chief Ne Cuco of Boma carried around to several markets in order to find the men who had stolen his goods. He eventually seized the nkisi as booty during a short toll war with the chiefs of Boma in 1878. Anthropomorphic Power Figure, nkisi Manyangu Yombe people Mayombe, Lower Congo, DRC Late 19th century Wood, iron, vegetal fiber, pigment, resin, glass Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.22485
Yombe people Mayombe, Lower Congo, DRC Late 19th century Wood, vegetal fiber, clay, iron, fat, pigment, glass, resin Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.22462 In 1915 at the mission station of Kangu, two stunning examples of nkisi Manyangu were collected. Such minkisi of the nkondi type were activated against thieves and witches, and nkisi Manyangu was known to inflict them with lubanzi, a disease described as a stitch in the side, causing difficulty in breathing. A person so attacked had to be treated by the nganga of Manyangu, who could provide the cure and lift Manyangu’s curse, in exchange for a fee. The two minkisi here represent “a married couple.” The male nkisi raises his right arm, which originally held a knife, while the female counterpart, recognizable by the breasts, has her hands firmly planted on the hips. The idea behind “married” minkisi seems to have been that the female could soften, when necessary, the more vigorous powers of the male. Dance Scepter, Thafu Maluangu Woyo people Banana, Lower Congo, DRC Late 19th century Wood, vegetal fiber, nut Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.35045 Khimba was a boys’ initiation in Mayombe, Kakongo and Ngoyo. The initiation happened in seclusion in the forest, and could last several months. Under the guidance of a master, the participants learned many things, including the vocabulary of an esoteric Khimba language. At important moments during the initiation, the participants were completely colored white and danced with skirts made of fibers. The dance scepter, called Thafu Maluangu, shows the initiates Matundu and Malanda who lead the group in procession out of the initiation camp. The lower part of the object is wrapped with a string of seed pods. The rattling sound of Thafu Maluangu accompanied the dancing bakhimba when they reappeared in the village.
Woyo people Cabinda, Angola Late 19th century Ivory Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.1979.1.1022 The shape of the crescent hand-held drum was replicated in other objects. Roughly carved versions were attached to objects in order to identify them as a part of Lemba. The crescent shape was also found in pendants worn by Lemba initiates who wished to show their status. They were made of wood, metal or ivory. The ivory pendant here features a crocodile with a fish between its teeth, a metaphoric reference to successful hunting and trading, and to the accumulation of wealth that membership in Lemba facilitated. Ivory pendant Solongo people Boma, Lower Congo, DRC Early 20th century Ivory Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.1953.74.504 Local variations in ivory mimic European introduced medals but also turn them into something typically Kongo. The circular disk form, for example, seems to be modeled on European medals, with its raised rim and loop for suspension. The motif, however, is a classic Kongo symbol, a circle surrounding an equal-armed cross. The Maltese cross was a common motif on both Portuguese and Belgian medals, yet the motif in its center looks like another variation on the so-called Kongo cosmogram, a lozenge superimposed on the vertical and horizontal axes within a circle. The leopard claw is a traditional symbol of political power referring to physical force and the king’s power over life and death. Box, Nkobe Lemba Woyo people Banana, Lower Congo, DRC Late 19th century Bark, vegetal fiber, fruit, pigment, feathers Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.35191 The Lemba cult developed a rich material culture, including prestigious tokens of membership and a distinct iconography. The round nkobe box, made of bark and wood, and often colored red and white, was a central object in Lemba. The box contained the “medicines” assembled during initiation. Their names, forms and juxtaposition worked like a rebus and created statements about Lemba and its members. Lemba Bracelet Kongo people Mayombe, Lower Congo, DRC 19th century Brass Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.1954.60.2 Two Figures, Lemba Couple Yombe people Mayombe, Lower Congo, DRC Late 19th century Wood, shell, iron, pigment, clay Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.42920 The most enduring Lemba object was the bracelet made of brass or other copper alloys. The one here shows the Lemba couple, with the man holding a carved staff and the woman touching her breasts, a symbolic gesture of generosity. Lemba initiates wore the bracelet for the rest of their lives and were buried with it. The Lemba couple was also represented in wood, here sitting on a carved chest used to store raffia currency. The figures are colored white and have “medicines” fixed on the belly – visual references to the empowerment of the Lemba initiation. Handheld Slit Drum Woyo people Lower Congo, DRC Early 20th century Wood Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, MO.0.0.35218 Bell with Three Clappers Yombe People Lower Congo, DRC Early 20th century Wood Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, MO.0.0.33980 Nkisi Bundle Yombe people Mayombe, Lower Congo, DRC Early 20th century Vegetal fiber, textile, shell Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.22444
Vili people Loango, Congo-Brazzaville Late 19th century Vegetal fiber Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.7349-1 Fiber Basket Vili people Loango, Congo-Brazzaville Late 19th century Vegetal fiber Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.29075 The Kongo tradition of creating highly adorned baskets lasted from the sixteenth century to the beginning of the twentieth century. Finely woven baskets served as containers for clan relics, valuables and objects related to status. Constructed with wood or bark liners to ensure their strength, the exterior is covered with woven natural and dyed raffia and rattan fibers using plainweave or twill work in patterns that dazzle the eye. The richly patterned form proclaims the treasures held within and the wealth of the owner, yet basket motifs also may convey cosmological meanings. The most commonly seen motif, the lozenge, is one of the most profound, as it signifies the human life cycle. Fragment of Bed Post Yombe people Mayombe, Lower Congo, DRC Late 19th century Wood, pigment Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.35776 In Ngoyo, Kakongo, and Mayombe, when a young girl had reached marriageable age, she was called to enter into the nzo Kumbi. During a period of five to ten months, she received instruction about marriage rights and duties. Her skin was rubbed with a red cosmetic called tukula, a mixture of powder rasped from lukunga wood mixed with palm oil. The nzo Kumbi had a bed with a plaited bottom standing on four poles about five feet high. The sides of the bed were decorated with red and white geometric designs, while the head and footboards had figurative sculpture. The bed post here depicts two young men who both have one hand resting on the shoulder of their future Kumbi brides. The presence of the brides’ maternal uncles and the coins and other attributes refer to the exchange of goods that was part of the marriage agreement. Mask of the Nganga Diphomba Yombe people Mayombe, Lower Congo, DRC Late 19th century Wood, pigment, clay (kaolin) Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.43573 The material attributes of a nkisi included the outfit of the ritual expert (nganga). This outfit consisted of special garments, jewelry, a feathered headdress, and sometimes a wooden mask. The white mask here with striking naturalistic features belonged to the nganga of nkisi Diphomba, known in Mayombe as a diviner. He was consulted in order to discover the hidden causes of someone’s illness or misfortune. During the most dramatic moments of his performance, he would go into a possession trance and communicate with the spirit world in order to disclose the facts. Ndunga Mask Woyo people Banana, Lower Congo, DRC Early 20th century Wood, pigment Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.34579 The mask with protruding forehead and red and black lines over the cheeks is a ndunga mask from Ngoyo. In the nineteenth century this region was repeatedly affected by droughts which were thought to be caused by earth spirits who were disturbed because one of their regulations had been violated. Such matters were investigated by the ndunga diviners who would find the culprit and bring him or her to the chief. The bandunga have been described as a sort of “police force” because they seemed to be at the chief’s command. Later they became part of cultural folklore as they performed their masked dances at funeral ceremonies and public feasts. Zoomorphic Power Figure, nkisi Mawenze Yombe people Mayombe, Lower Congo, DRC Late 19th century Wood, vegetal fiber, metal Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium, EO.0.0.22451 Nkisi Mawenze could take the form of an anthropomorphic statue but also occurred in the form of a dog with a curled tail. In Yombe mythology, the curled tail dog was one of the appearances of lightning, and its bark could be heard as a rattling thunderclap! The form was thus appropriate for a nkisi associated with violence and retribution, the sort capable of inflicting and curing mental disorders and other diseases of the upper part of the body. In the early twentieth century, nkisi Mawenze was held responsible for sleeping sickness, together with half a dozen other minkisi. Sleeping sickness infected thousands of victims in Central Africa at that time, and nkisi Mawenze was part of a tragic attempt to control it. 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