Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
Chemical
|
Used as a process catalyst for a number of processes, including the oxo process for the conversion of alkenes to n-aldehydes (hydroformylation)
|
8% (54) (global)
|
cobalt
|
adequate
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling
Substitute refers to the cobalt catalyst that was previously used in the oxo process for the production of aldehydes from alkenes (56)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Glass
|
Used as an alloying agent with platinum in glass manufacturing equipment
|
3% (54) (global)
|
platinum
|
adequate
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling
Substitute refers to the use of platinum either alone or with an alloying agent other than rhodium, such as gold or iridium (58)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Electrical
|
Used as an alloying agent with platinum in thermocouples, and in sliding and pressure contacts used for electric motors
|
<1% (54) (global)
|
nickel
|
adequate
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Substitute refers to nickel used in type K and type N thermocouples that can be used in oxidizing or inert atmospheres up to 1260°C (59)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Other
|
Various uses, including electroplating onto metal surfaces, such as jewelry, to provide protection and finishing
|
4% (54) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Rhodium coatings are noted as being superior to all other platinum-group metal coatings in terms of hardness, mechanical and chemical stability, and reflectivity (60)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Pd
|
Autocatalyst
|
Used as a catalyst used to control vehicle exhaust emissions
|
54% (54) (global)
|
platinum
|
good
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Platinum and palladium are noted as being equally effective at controlling emissions from gasoline-powered vehicles (61)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Electrical
|
Includes a wide variety of uses in electronics, including as a thick film paste used in multilayer ceramic capacitors
|
17% (54) (global)
|
nickel
|
good
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Substitute refers to the use of nickel-based multilayer ceramic capacitors in place of those based on palladium (62)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Jewelry
|
Used as a fabricated jewelry and alloying agent
|
12% (54) (global)
|
platinum
|
good
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Substitute refers to platinum jewelry alloyed with elements other than palladium (62)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Dental
|
Used as an alloying agent in dental restorations
|
8% (54) (global)
|
nickel
|
good
|
Refers to nickel-based metal alloys used in restorative dentistry (63)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Investment
|
Used in coins and exchange traded funds
|
5% (54) (global)
|
gold
|
good
|
Gold, silver, and platinum can presumably be used as alternatives to palladium as a medium for investing
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Chemical
|
Used as a process catalyst for a variety of chemical and petroleum applications
|
4% (54) (global)
|
nickel
|
adequate
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling
Substitute refers to nickel catalysts that can be used in hydrogenation of alkynes to alkenes (64), indirect synthesis of hydrogen peroxide (65), and in hydro-cracking and hydro-treating (64)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Other
|
Various uses, including the control of industrial emissions and oxygen sensors
|
1% (54) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Presumably other platinum-group metals can be used instead of palladium in these other applications
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Ag
|
Electrical and electronics
|
Used in switching devices, batteries, calculators, and hearing aids
|
23% (66) (global)
|
copper (66)
|
poor
|
|
Jewelry
|
Jewelry
|
18% (66) (global)
|
gold (66)
|
exemplary
|
|
Investment
|
Used as coins and medals
|
14% (66) (global)
|
gold (66)
|
exemplary
|
|
Photography
|
Used in the manufacture of film, photographic paper, photocopying paper, and x-ray film
|
12% (66) (global)
|
paper (66)
|
adequate
|
|
Silverware
|
Used in bowls and flatware
|
6% (66) (global)
|
stainless steel (36)
|
exemplary
|
|
Other
|
Includes uses in solders, bearings, dental amalgams, and mirrors
|
27% (66) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Cd
|
Batteries (consumer)
|
Used in nickel-cadmium batteries in cordless power tools, cellular phones, camcorders, portable computers, portable household appliances, and toys
|
66% (global)
|
lithium-ion batteries
|
exemplary
|
Estimates derived from data for total use in batteries (1), combined with the indication that, of total cadmium usage in batteries, 80% is for consumer batteries and 20% is for industrial batteries (67)
|
Batteries (industrial)
|
Used in nickel-cadmium batteries for a variety of industrial uses (e.g., in the aircraft industry for starting and emergency power)
|
17% (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Estimates derived from data for total use in batteries (1), combined with the indication that, of total cadmium usage in batteries, 80% is for consumer batteries and 20% is for industrial batteries (67)
|
Pigments
|
Used mainly in plastics, but also in glasses, ceramics, and enamels
|
8% (1) (global)
|
cerium sulfide (1)
|
adequate (68)
|
|
Coatings
|
Used mainly in industrial applications for transportation (e.g., shipbuilding, railway, aircraft, and critical automotive uses), industrial fasteners, and communications
|
7% (1) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
|
Other
|
For example, as stabilizers in plastics
|
2% (1) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
In
|
Indium tin oxide thin-film coatings (mostly for liquid crystal displays)
|
Used in flat-panel devices and liquid crystal displays
|
84% (42) (global)
|
aluminum-doped zinc oxide (69)
|
adequate
|
Global values are for 2007
|
Solders and alloys
|
Used in solders and alloys in aircraft and automotive applications, as well as in bearings, dies, seals, and sputtering targets
|
8% (42) (global)
|
gallium (70)
|
good
|
Global values are for 2007
|
Electrical components and semiconductors
|
Used in computers, batteries, photodetectors, and photovoltaic/solar cells
|
2% (42) (global)
|
gallium arsenide (71)
|
good
|
Global values are for 2007
|
Other
|
Includes research and compounds
|
6% (42) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2007
|
Sn
|
Solder
|
Used in electronics
|
54% (72) (global)
|
epoxy resin (1)
|
good
|
Global values are for 2009
|
Tinplate
|
Used mainly in cans and containers
|
17% (72) (global)
|
aluminum
|
exemplary
|
Global values are for 2009
|
Chemicals
|
Used as a polyvinyl chloride stabilizer, and in biocides and lead-acid batteries
|
13% (72) (global)
|
lead (73)
|
adequate
|
Global values are for 2009
|
Brass and bronze
|
Used in construction and transportation
|
5% (72) (global)
|
copper-based alloys
|
good
|
Global values are for 2009
|
Other
|
Includes float glass
|
11% (72) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2009
|
Sb
|
Flame retardants
|
Includes use in plastics, textiles, rubber, adhesives and plastic covers for aircrafts and automobiles
|
51% (74) (global)
|
hydrated aluminum oxide (1)
|
adequate
|
|
Lead-acid batteries
|
Used mainly in vehicle batteries
|
26% (74) (global)
|
calcium alloy (75)
|
good
|
|
Ceramics and glass
|
Used as an additive to glass to remove microscopic bubbles
|
4% (74) (global)
|
tin oxide (76)
|
adequate
|
|
Chemicals
|
Used mainly as a heat stabilizer and as a catalyst for the production of polyester
|
7% (74) (global)
|
titanium (77)
|
poor
|
|
Other
|
Includes ammunition, cable coverings, fireworks, metal castings, paper, pigments, and rubber products
|
12% (74) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Te
|
Metallurgy: ferrous products
|
Used as an additive to stainless steel
|
48% (78) (global)
|
bismuth (36)
|
good
|
|
Chemicals and catalysts
|
Used for the oxidation of organic compounds, hydrogenation of oils, and chlorination
|
25% (78) (global)
|
selenium (36)
|
good
|
|
Metallurgy: nonferrous products
|
Used in power and communication cables, automotive bearings, and solders
|
12% (78) (global)
|
lead (79)
|
good
|
|
Photoreceptor and thermoelectric devices
|
Used in thermal imaging devices and navigation systems
|
8% (78) (global)
|
silicon (36)
|
good
|
|
Other
|
Used as germicides, fungicides, color additives, and ceramics
|
7% (78) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Ba
|
Oil industry
|
Used mainly as a weighting agent in gas and oil-well drilling fluids
|
84% (80) (global)
|
hematite
|
adequate
|
Global values are for 2008/2009 and, based upon input from an industry expert, we assume that barite represents one hundred percent of barium use
|
Other
|
Includes use as a filler in plastics, paint, and rubber, as well as use in automobile brakes and clutch pads, electronics, ceramics, and medical applications
|
16% (80) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2008/2009 and, based upon input from an industry expert, we assume that barite represents one hundred percent of barium use
|
La
|
Fluid cracking catalysts
|
Used in petrochemical and related applications
|
46% (47) (global)
|
none (48)
|
not applicable
|
|
Battery alloys
|
Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries using nickel and mischmetal
|
16% (47) (global)
|
lithium-ion batteries
|
good (48)
|
|
Glass polishing
|
Includes polishing of glass and ceramics
|
13% (47) (global)
|
iron oxide
|
adequate (81)
|
|
Metallurgy, except batteries
|
Includes addition to steel to improve malleability and to molybdenum to decrease hardness
|
8% (47) (global)
|
magnesium
|
adequate (81)
|
|
Glass additives
|
Used in optical glass, infrared glass, and camera lenses
|
7% (47) (global)
|
cerium
|
good
|
|
Other
|
Includes use in welding electrodes, carbon arc lamps, and lighter flints
|
10% (47) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Ce
|
Glass polishing
|
Used to polish precision optics
|
25% (47) (global)
|
iron oxide
|
adequate (81)
|
|
Glass additives
|
Used as a decolorizer and dopant
|
19% (47) (global)
|
selenium
|
adequate (82)
|
|
Automobile catalytic converters
|
Cerium oxide applied as an oxygen-exchange coating on the ceramic (83)
|
16% (47) (global)
|
lanthanum
|
adequate (47)
|
|
Metallurgy, except batteries
|
Includes aluminum, magnesium, and iron alloys
|
14% (47) (global)
|
magnesium
|
adequate (81)
|
|
Battery alloys
|
Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries using nickel and mischmetal
|
10% (47) (global)
|
lithium-ion batteries
|
good (48)
|
|
Other
|
Includes use in arc welding and carbon arc lighting
|
16% (47) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Pr
|
Neodymium magnets
|
Used with neodymium and other rare earth elements in high-intensity magnets
|
70% (47) (global)
|
samarium-cobalt magnets
|
good (48)
|
|
Glass polishing
|
Used as a polishing agent for electronic and thermoelectric components
|
7% (47) (global)
|
iron oxide
|
adequate (81)
|
|
Metallurgy, except batteries
|
Used mostly in magnesium alloys for aircraft engines
|
7% (47) (global)
|
magnesium
|
adequate (81)
|
|
Battery alloys
|
Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries
|
5% (47) (global)
|
lithium-ion batteries
|
good (48)
|
|
Automobile catalytic converters
|
Used in combination with lanthanum and cerium
|
2% (47) (global)
|
cerium
|
good
|
|
Other
|
Includes use in gas doping agents for industrial lighting
|
9% (47) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Nd
|
Neodymium magnets
|
Used with praseodymium and other rare earth elements in high-intensity magnets
|
76% (47) (global)
|
samarium-cobalt magnets
|
good (48)
|
|
Metallurgy, except batteries
|
Used mostly in magnesium alloys for aircraft engines
|
8% (47) (global)
|
magnesium
|
adequate (81)
|
|
Ceramics
|
Used as a coloring agent
|
4% (47) (global)
|
cerium
|
adequate
|
|
Automobile catalytic converters
|
Used in combination with lanthanum and cerium
|
1% (47) (global)
|
cerium
|
good
|
|
Other
|
Used as a coloring agent for glass
|
11% (47) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Sm
|
Battery alloys
|
Used in nickel-metal hydride batteries
|
73% (47) (global)
|
lithium-ion batteries
|
good (48)
|
|
Other
|
Includes use in samarium-cobalt magnets, as a nuclear reactor neutron absorber, and as an optical glass doping agent
|
27% (47) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Eu
|
Phosphors
|
Used as a red phosphor in flat-panel displays and fluorescent lamps
|
100% (47) (global)
|
none (48)
|
not applicable
|
|
Gd
|
Neodymium magnets
|
Used as a minor but important constituent of high-strength magnets
|
69% (47) (global)
|
neodymium
|
adequate (48)
|
|
Phosphors
|
Used as a green phosphor in flat-panel displays
|
21% (47) (global)
|
yttrium
|
adequate (48)
|
|
Other
|
Used as a contrast agent in medical imaging (84), as an x-ray intensifier (85), and in nuclear fuel rods
|
10% (47) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Tb
|
Phosphors
|
Used largely in compact fluorescent lights
|
89% (47) (global)
|
erbium
|
adequate (48)
|
|
Neodymium magnets
|
Used as a minor but important constituent of high-strength magnets
|
11% (47) (global)
|
dysprosium
|
adequate (48)
|
|
Dy
|
Neodymium magnets
|
Used as a minor but important constituent of high-strength magnets
|
100% (47) (global)
|
none (86)
|
not applicable
|
|
Ho
|
Magnets
|
Used in the pole pieces of the strongest static magnets
|
100% (global)
|
neodymium magnets
|
adequate
|
Global value based on estimate for the United States (87)
|
Er
|
Phosphors
|
Used in fiber optic cables and flat-panel displays
|
100% (global)
|
terbium
|
adequate (48)
|
Global value based on estimate for the United States (87)
|
Tm
|
X-ray
|
Includes use in portable x-ray detectors and lasers
|
100% (global)
|
barium
|
poor
|
Global value based on estimate for the United States (87)
|
Yb
|
X-ray
|
Includes use in laser applications
|
100% (global)
|
thorium
|
poor
|
Global value based on estimate for the United States (87)
|
Lu
|
Medical
|
Used widely in positron emission tomography (88)
|
100% (global)
|
bismuth
|
adequate (85)
|
Global value based on estimate for the United States (87)
|
Hf
|
Aerospace
|
Used as an alloying additive in nickel-based superalloys in turbine vanes in the combustion zone of jet aircraft engines
|
39% (89) (global)
|
zirconium metal
|
good
|
|
Nuclear energy control rods
|
Used as control rod material in nuclear reactors
|
16% (89) (global)
|
silver-cadmium-indium alloy (1)
|
good
|
|
Superalloy: fuel reprocessing plants
|
Used in spent nuclear fuel storage racks, and for tanks and piping in spent fuel reprocessing plants
|
13% (89) (global)
|
zirconium metal
|
good
|
|
Refractory
|
Hafnium oxide used as a specialized refractory material
|
13% (89) (global)
|
zirconium dioxide
|
good
|
|
Manufacturing: plasma cutting tools
|
Pure hafnium used as the active tip for plasma arc cutting tools
|
9% (89) (global)
|
zirconium metal (90)
|
good
|
|
Electronics
|
Hafnium and hafnium oxide sputtering targets used for coatings and specialized electronic applications
|
4% (89) (global)
|
zirconium dioxide (91)
|
good
|
|
Other
|
Primarily used in optical fiber, with a smaller amount in catalysts
|
6% (89) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Ta
|
Capacitors
|
Used in capacitors
|
48% (92) (global)
|
aluminum (1)
|
good
|
|
Alloy additives
|
Used primarily in superalloys in turbine engine components
|
16% (92) (global)
|
niobium (1)
|
good
|
|
Sputtering targets
|
Used in sputtering targets
|
11% (92) (global)
|
zirconium
|
adequate
|
|
Tantalum carbide
|
Used mostly in cutting tools
|
11% (92) (global)
|
niobium (1)
|
good
|
|
Other
|
Includes use in chemicals and other mill products
|
14% (92) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
W
|
Cemented carbides
|
Used primarily in metal cutting tools, metal forming tools (e.g., dies), and construction and mining equipment
|
50% (93) (global)
|
boron nitride (73)
|
adequate
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Mill products
|
Includes use in electronic and welding applications
|
15% (93) (global)
|
molybdenum
|
good
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Steel
|
Used primarily in metal cutting tools, metal forming tools (e.g., dies), and construction and mining equipment
|
8.5% (global)
|
molybdenum (73, 94)
|
good
|
Global values are for 2005, and superalloys and steels were aggregated in global statistics (93) so assumed an equal division of use
|
Superalloys
|
Used primarily in turbine engine components
|
8.5% (global)
|
nickel and molybdenum alloys (73)
|
good
|
Global values are for 2005, and superalloys and steels were aggregated in global statistics (93) so assumed an equal division of use
|
Other
|
Includes use in pigments
|
18% (93) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Re
|
Superalloys
|
Used primarily in turbine engine components
|
78% (95) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
See comments about nickel use in aerospace
|
Catalysts
|
Used primarily in petroleum refining catalysts
|
15% (95) (global)
|
platinum
|
good (96)
|
|
Other
|
Includes use in radiation screens and semiconductors
|
7% (95) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Os
|
Electron microscopy
|
Used as a staining agent in microscopic analyses
|
No recent publically available data, so uses are weighted equally
|
ruthenium
|
good
|
Substitute refers to ruthenium tetroxide as a substitute staining agent in polymer microscopy (97)
|
Chemical
|
Used as a process catalyst for a limited number of processes
|
ruthenium
|
good
|
Substitute refers to ruthenium tetroxide used in the syn-dihydroxylation of alkenes (98)
|
Other
|
Used as an alloying agent, typically with other platinum-group metals, for various applications
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Presumably other platinum-group metals can be used instead of osmium in these applications
|
Ir
|
Electrochemical
|
Used as a coating for dimensionally stable anodes used by the chlor-alkali industry and in numerous other applications
|
25% (54) (global)
|
ruthenium
|
adequate
|
Substitute refers to the use of ruthenium and ruthenium-tin oxide coatings in the chlor-alkali industry as an alternative to the ruthenium-iridium coatings (99)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Chemical
|
Used as a process catalyst for several processes including acetic acid synthesis
|
21% (54) (global)
|
rhodium
|
adequate
|
Substitute refers to the rhodium catalyst used in the Monsanto acetic acid production process (56)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Electrical
|
Used in crucibles used to grow high purity single crystals of metal oxides
|
15% (54) (global)
|
molybdenum
|
poor
|
Substitute refers to molybdenum crucibles that can be used to grow sapphire and yttrium aluminum garnet crystals (100)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Other
|
Used as an alloying agent with platinum in various applications
|
40% (54) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Platinum can be alloyed with elements other than iridium in certain applications
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Pt
|
Autocatalyst: diesel
|
Used as a catalyst to control exhaust emissions of vehicles powered by diesel engines
|
33% (54, 101) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Although palladium can routinely substitute for up to 25% of platinum, it still cannot completely replace platinum in diesel applications (71)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Jewelry
|
Used in jewelry fabrication
|
26% (54) (global)
|
palladium
|
good
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Substitutes refers to palladium as a jewelry metal and alloying agent in white gold (62)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Autocatalyst: gasoline
|
Used as a catalyst to control exhaust emissions of vehicles powered by gasoline engines
|
13% (54, 101) (global)
|
palladium
|
good
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Substitute refers to the use of palladium instead of platinum in gasoline engines (62)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Investment
|
Used as small and large bars, coins, and exchange traded funds
|
7% (54) (global)
|
gold
|
good
|
Gold, silver, and palladium can presumably be used as alternatives to palladium as a medium for investing
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Chemical
|
Used as a catalyst for the production of a variety of bulk and specialty chemicals
|
5% (54) (global)
|
cobalt
|
adequate
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling
Substitute refers to the use of a cobalt oxide catalyst in the production of nitric acid (102)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Glass
|
Used in glass manufacturing equipment
|
4% (54) (global)
|
iridium
|
poor
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling
Recent developments have allowed iridium to be used in the glass industry although some limitations still exist (103)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Medical and biomedical
|
Used in dental alloys, biomedical devices, and anti-cancer drugs
|
3% (54) (global)
|
palladium
|
adequate
|
Substitute refers to the use of palladium-based alloys as alternatives to platinum-based alloys in dental (62) and biomedical applications (104)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Petroleum
|
Used as a catalyst for various petroleum refining processes
|
3% (54) (global)
|
molybdenum
|
poor
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not include the amount recovered from closed-loop recycling
Substitute refers to molybdenum oxide-based catalysts that were used in the older reforming process (82)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Electrical
|
Used in contacts for various electronic applications and in computer hard disks
|
3% (54) (global)
|
palladium
|
adequate
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
Substitute refers to iron-palladium and cobalt-palladium alloys in thin films that have been investigated for use in computer hard disk drives (105)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Other
|
Used in various applications, including stationary pollution control, spark plugs and oxygen sensors, and corrosion resistant coatings
|
4% (54) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Other platinum-group metals can presumably be used in some of these other applications
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Au
|
Jewelry
|
Jewelry
|
62% (106) (global)
|
silver (66)
|
good
|
|
Official transactions and private investment
|
Used as medallions and small bars
|
23% (106) (global)
|
silver (66)
|
good
|
|
Electronics
|
Used in printed circuit boards, connectors, semiconductors, and thermocouples
|
8% (106) (global)
|
silver (106)
|
adequate
|
|
Dental and medical
|
Used in dental fillings
|
2% (106) (global)
|
silver (36)
|
adequate
|
|
Other industrial
|
Used in industrial control and monitoring instruments, and corrosion-resistant chemical process equipment
|
5% (106) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Hg
|
Artisanal and small-scale gold mining
|
Used for gold extraction
|
21% (107) (global)
|
borax (108)
|
adequate
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Vinyl chloride monomer production
|
Used as the catalyst in the production of vinyl chloride monomer
|
20% (107) (global)
|
precious metal salts (109)
|
adequate
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Chlorine-caustic soda manufacturing
|
Used in the mercury cell process for the production of chlorine and sodium hydroxide
|
13% (107) (global)
|
membrane cells (1)
|
good
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Dental equipment and supplies
|
Used mainly in dental amalgams
|
10% (107) (global)
|
ceramic composites (1)
|
exemplary
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Electrical: batteries
|
Used in batteries
|
10% (107) (global)
|
lithium ion batteries
|
exemplary
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Electrical: electrical and electronic devices
|
Used in wiring devices and switches
|
5% (107) (global)
|
gallium indium alloy (110)
|
adequate
|
Global values are for 2005
Substitute of gallium indium alloy functions as a direct replacement for mercury within switches
|
Electrical: lighting
|
Includes usage in fluorescent lamps
|
4% (107) (global)
|
none (111)
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Measuring and control devices
|
Used mainly in thermometers and thermostats
|
9% (107) (global)
|
galinstan (an alloy of gallium, indium, and tin) (1)
|
exemplary
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Other
|
Includes use in fungicides, chemicals, pigments, and pesticides
|
8% (107) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Tl
|
Electronics
|
Used in gamma radiation detection equipment, communications equipment, cardiovascular imaging, and in thallium-impregnated glass used as coverings on electronic devices (e.g., semiconductors and capacitors)
|
90% (informed estimate) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Detailed, quantitative end-uses of thallium are not available, making it intractable to select a single primary substitute
|
Other
|
Includes chemical uses (e.g., synthesis of organic compounds) and in alloys to improve corrosion resistance (e.g., in switches)
|
10% (informed estimate) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Detailed, quantitative end-uses of thallium are not available, making it intractable to select a single primary substitute
|
Pb
|
Batteries
|
Used in lead-acid batteries for back-up power (e.g., in hospitals and weapons systems), in transportation vehicles, and to assist electric utilities in shifting loads among grids
|
80% (112) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
|
Other
|
Includes use in ammunition, sheet/pipes, pigments, and cable sheathing
|
20% (112) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Bi
|
Fusible alloys, solders, and ammunition cartridges
|
Includes use in solders, wires, safety fuses, and molded products
|
35% (113) (global)
|
lead
|
good
|
Global values are for 2006
|
Metallurgical additives
|
Used in automobiles, planes, grip tubes, tools, and punches
|
35% (113) (global)
|
lead (73)
|
adequate
|
Global values are for 2006
|
Pharmaceuticals and chemicals
|
Includes use in antacids
|
28% (113) (global)
|
magnesium compounds (73)
|
good
|
Global values are for 2006
|
Other
|
For example, used in pigments, dentistry, glass, enameled ceramics, and plastic lenses
|
2% (113) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2006
|
Th
|
Welding electrodes
|
Used in thoriated tungsten electrodes
|
65% (global)
|
cerium
|
good
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996
|
Lighting
|
Solution of thorium and cerium nitrates used to produce gas mantles
|
20% (114) (global)
|
yttrium compounds (1)
|
good
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996
|
Refractory
|
Used in high temperature crucibles for melting pure, carbon-sensitive metals at 2300℃
|
14% (114) (global)
|
yttrium oxide (115)
|
exemplary
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996
|
Nuclear applications
|
Behaves as a breeder, absorbing neutrons and forming uranium-233
|
1% (114) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States (114) and, due to data limitations, values are for 1996
|
U
|
Nuclear energy
|
Used as a nuclear fuel in power station reactors
|
100% (global)
|
thorium
|
adequate
|
Assumed that nuclear energy is the only significant end-use of uranium
|
