Used in solar cells, automobile taillights, cameras, flashlights, cellular telephone display screens, televisions, and traffic signals
15% (1) (global)
|
silicon (1)
|
good
|
|
Other
|
Includes phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy
|
5% (1) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
As
|
Wood preservation and pesticides
|
Used in wood preservatives and agricultural chemicals
|
68% (global)
|
copper (39)
|
good
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)
|
Semiconductor devices
|
Used in light-emitting diodes, displays, lasers, microwave devices, solar cells, and integrated circuits
|
7% (global)
|
silicon (41)
|
good
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)
|
Copper alloys
|
Used in industrial plant piping, radiators, and brass
|
7% (global)
|
antimony (39)
|
good
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)
|
Other
|
Used as a fining agent in the glass industry, as a decolorizing agent, in ceramics, and in pharmaceuticals
|
18% (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States, which are informed estimates described in Nassar et al. (40)
|
Se
|
Glass manufacturing
|
Used to decolorize container and other glass, to reduce solar heat transmission in architectural plate glass, and to produce red color in plastics, ceramics, and glass (1)
|
40% (42) (global)
|
cerium oxide (36)
|
good
|
|
Metallurgy
|
Used to improve machinability of copper, lead, and steel alloys (1)
|
25% (42) (global)
|
bismuth (36)
|
good
|
|
Agriculture
|
Serves as a micronutrient
|
15% (42) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
|
Chemical and pigments
|
Used in plastics, inks, paints, catalysts in chemical reactions, and the preparation of organic compounds and rubber
|
10% (42) (global)
|
tellurium (36)
|
good
|
|
Electronics
|
Used in photocopiers, electrical rectifiers, and solar cells
|
10% (42) (global)
|
silicon (36)
|
good
|
|
Sr
|
Pyrotechnics and signals
|
Used mainly in fireworks and flares
|
30% (global)
|
none (1, 43)
|
not applicable
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)
|
Ferrite ceramic magnets
|
Used mainly in toys, electronics, and windshield wipers
|
30% (global)
|
barium (1)
|
adequate
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)
|
Master alloys
|
Used mainly as an additive to aluminum-silicon alloys
|
10% (global)
|
sodium (44)
|
adequate
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)
|
Pigments and fillers
|
For example, in phosphorescent pigments
|
10% (global)
|
barium (1)
|
poor
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)
|
Electrolytic production of zinc
|
Used to produce high purity zinc
|
10% (global)
|
barium (45)
|
adequate
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)
|
Other
|
Includes use in toothpaste (46) and fluorescent lamps
|
10% (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values based on estimates for the United States (1)
|
Y
|
Phosphors
|
Used in flat-panel displays, x-ray intensifying screens, and temperature sensors
|
54% (47) (global)
|
none (48)
|
not applicable
|
|
Ceramics
|
Y-stabilized zirconia (zirconium oxide) used in refractories and as jet turbine blade and nozzle coatings
|
32% (47) (global)
|
calcium
|
poor
|
|
Other
|
Includes electronics, heating elements, and superalloys uses
|
14% (47) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Zr
|
Ceramics
|
Milled or micronized zircon is used as an opacifier for tile glazes and porcelain enamels
|
64% (39, 49) (global)
|
alumina (1)
|
adequate
|
|
Refractory
|
Used in the glass industry and steel industry (e.g., in ladles and continuous casting nozzles)
|
18% (39, 49) (global)
|
alumina spinels (1)
|
adequate
|
|
Foundry molds
|
Used as a basic mold material and facing on other mold materials
|
14% (39, 49) (global)
|
chromite (50)
|
poor (50)
|
|
Other
|
Used in television glass (due to its x-ray absorption properties and ability to toughen the glass), in alloys, as structural parts in the core of water moderated nuclear reactors, in catalysts, and in jewelry
|
4% (39, 49) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Nb
|
Construction
|
Used in heavy engineering and infrastructure applications
|
29% (51) (global)
|
vanadium (52)
|
good
|
|
Transportation
|
Used in various automobile parts
|
24% (51) (global)
|
vanadium (52)
|
good
|
|
Oil and gas industry
|
Used in oil and gas pipelines, and in the petrochemical sector
|
24% (51) (global)
|
vanadium (52)
|
good
|
|
Stainless steel
|
Includes use in exhaust systems in automobiles, in heat resistant steel in the petrochemical industry, and in power plants
|
10% (51) (global)
|
tantalum
|
adequate
|
|
Niobium metal and alloys
|
Used in jet engines, land-based turbines, high energy particle accelerators, magnetic resonance imaging, and niobium oxide capacitors
|
5% (51) (global)
|
molybdenum
|
adequate
|
|
Other
|
Includes use in drill pipes, well casings, and cutting tools
|
8% (51) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Mo
|
Constructional engineering steels
|
Used in oil and gas exploration (pipings and refineries), heavy machinery, transportation (e.g., automotive for powertrain systems, off-road vehicles, and ships), power generation, and chemical and petrochemical machinery (e.g., tanks)
|
35% (53) (global)
|
molybdenum-free constructional engineering steels
|
adequate
|
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Stainless steel
|
Used in chemical and petrochemical machinery, building and construction, food processing, pulp and paper industry, oil and gas exploration (piping), and pollution control in power generation
|
25% (53) (global)
|
molybdenum-free stainless steels
|
adequate (32)
|
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Tool and high speed steel
|
Used in metal processing, automotive (powertrain and exhaust systems), machining tools, and consumer goods (e.g., drills)
|
11% (53) (global)
|
molybdenum-free tool and high speed steel
|
adequate
|
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Chemicals
|
Used as catalysts in the petrochemical industry (desulphurization), pigments, coatings, and lubricants
|
10% (53) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Cast iron
|
Used in transportation (including automotive exhaust systems), heavy machinery, and metal processing
|
8% (53) (global)
|
molybdenum-free cast iron
|
adequate
|
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Superalloys
|
Used in aerospace, chemical and petrochemical machinery, oil and gas, and pollution control in power generation
|
6% (53) (global)
|
niobium
|
poor
|
Tungsten is another likely substitute in superalloys
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
See comments about nickel use in aerospace
|
Molybdenum metal
|
Used in automotive, electronics, and chemical and petrochemical applications
|
6% (53) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Ru
|
Electrical
|
Used in thick film pastes, perpendicular magnetic recording technology for computer hard disks, and electroplated reed contacts
|
59% (global) (54)
|
iridium
|
adequate
|
Substitute refers to oxides of iridium that can substitute for oxides of ruthenium in thick film resistors pastes (55)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Chemical
|
Used as process catalysts for a number of chemical processes, including synthesis of ammonia
|
20% (global) (54)
|
magnetite
|
adequate
|
Substitute refers to the magnetite catalyst used in the majority of ammonia synthesis plants (56)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Electrochemical
|
Coating of dimensionally stable anodes used by the chlor-alkali industry
|
14% (global) (54)
|
iridium
|
adequate
|
Substitute refers to iridium-based coatings as an alternative to ruthenium-coated anodes used in the chlor-alkali industry (56)
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Other
|
Used as an alloying agent in various applications
|
8% (global) (54)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Other precious metals can presumably be used in most of these other applications
Percentages into applications do not sum to one hundred percent due to rounding
|
Rh
|
Autocatalyst
|
Used as a catalyst to control vehicle NOx emissions
|
86% (54) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Percentage into application represents the total purchases of the metal for this application and does not deduct the amount recovered from post-consumer recycling
No substitutes have been identified for rhodium for the control of gasoline-power vehicle NOx emissions (57) |
