Other
|
Used in metal goods such as cutlery and fasteners, and also in refractory and chemical applications
|
30% (17) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Brass can be a good substitute in some stainless steel fasteners (19); tungsten carbide is a good substitute in high-speed steels; and aluminum is an adequate substitute in miscellaneous metal goods.
Global values are for 2000
|
Mn
|
Metallurgy
|
Used in steel metallurgy as a deoxidizing and desulfurizing agent
|
90% as cited in (20) using data from (21, 22) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
|
Non-steel alloys
|
Used mostly as aluminum alloys (e.g., beverage cans, kitchen ware, and roofing) (23, 24)
|
6% as cited in (20) using data from (21, 22) (global)
|
plastics (25)
|
adequate
|
|
Batteries
|
Used in dry cell batteries as the cathode material
|
2% as cited in (20) using data from (21, 22) (global)
|
lithium ion batteries
|
exemplary
|
Although manganese may be used as cathode material in lithium ion batteries, the cathode material can also be an oxide (e.g., lithium cobalt oxide) or a polyanion (e.g., lithium iron phosphate)
|
Other
|
Used in other metallurgy (e.g., copper and nickel), for corrosion protection of aluminum alloys, as a brick colorant, and in plant fertilizers and animal feed
|
2% as cited in (20) using data from (21, 22) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Fe
|
Construction
|
Used in bridges, buildings, and highways
|
48% (26) (global)
|
wood
|
adequate
|
|
Machinery
|
Used in machine tools, construction equipment, farm implements, and electricity power lines
|
31% (26) (global)
|
fiber-reinforced polymer (27)
|
adequate
|
|
Transportation
|
Used in cars, trucks, aircraft, subways, and trains
|
13% (26) (global)
|
aluminum (27)
|
good
|
|
Metal goods
|
Includes use in cans and containers, household appliances, and electronic equipment
|
8% (26) (global)
|
aluminum (27)
|
good
|
|
Co
|
Superalloys
|
Used primarily in turbine engine components
|
22% (28) (global)
|
nickel
|
adequate
|
Global values are for 2006
Nickel-based superalloys may substitute for cobalt-based superalloys. For higher operating performance, most nickel-based alloys contain cobalt. If cobalt is not added, the performance decreases.
|
Batteries
|
Used in lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, and nickel-cadmium batteries in consumer goods and in hybrid electric vehicles (mostly as nickel-metal hydride batteries)
|
22% (28) (global)
|
manganese
|
good
|
Global values are for 2006
Manganese can substitute for cobalt in lithium ion batteries (and, these, in turn, may substitute for nickel-metal hydride and nickel-cadmium batteries)
|
Cemented carbides
|
Used primarily in metal cutting tools, metal forming tools (e.g., dies), and construction and mining equipment
|
11% (28) (global)
|
nickel with chromium
|
adequate
|
Global values are for 2006
|
Catalysts
|
Used primarily in petroleum refining, products for plastics and detergent manufacture, and polyester precursors
|
11% (28) (global)
|
nickel
|
good
|
Global values are for 2006
Nickel substitutes for cobalt in petroleum-refining catalysts (1), which accounts for the largest amount of cobalt in catalysts (29)
|
Pigments
|
Used in coloring glass and in paints
|
9% (28) (global)
|
none (30)
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2006
Other elements can substitute for some degree for cobalt (e.g., cerium, iron, and vanadium), but there is no single substitute
|
Magnets
|
Used primarily in Alnico magnets (for applications like electric motors and loudspeakers) and in samarium-cobalt magnets magnets (for applications like turbomachinery and spectrometers)
|
7% (28) (global)
|
neodymium magnets
|
good
|
Global values are for 2006
|
Other
|
For example, as driers, in soaps, and as tire adhesives
|
18% (28) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2006
|
Ni
|
Industrial machinery
|
Used in chemical and petrochemical industries, food processing, industrial plumbing, and heat exchangers
|
31% based upon modifications to (31) (global)
|
nickel-free stainless steels
|
poor
|
Adequate performance in the food processing industry
|
Household appliances and metal goods
|
Used in dishwashers, washing machines, rice cookers, tools, fasteners, cutlery, and pots and pans
|
28% based upon modifications to (31) (global)
|
nickel-free stainless steels
|
good (32)
|
|
Building and construction
|
Used in architectural applications and street furniture
|
17% based upon modifications to (31) (global)
|
nickel-free stainless steels
|
good (32)
|
Coated aluminum is a good substitute in street furniture.
|
Transportation: excluding aerospace
|
Used in automotive applications, shipbuilding, railway applications, and bicycles
|
15% based upon modifications to (31) (global)
|
aluminum
|
adequate
|
Aluminum is an adequate substitute for railway passenger cars, bicycles, and automotive catalysts. No substitutes exist for the transport of chemicals or food by truck, rail, or ship; the hulls of container ships or bulk carriers; and plated applications.
|
Transportation: aerospace
|
Used primarily in jet engine blades
|
4% based upon modifications to (31) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Titanium aluminide (TiAl)-based alloys are good substitutes for low-pressure turbine blades (33), but no substitutes exist for high-pressure turbine blades. New manufacturing techniques for TiAl have been proposed, with the potential to replace nickel in all engine parts (34). No substitutes exist for plating applications.
|
Electronics
|
Used in various computer parts and in cellular phones
|
5% based upon modifications to (31) (global)
|
none
|
not applicable
|
Includes many miscellaneous uses, such as nickel-iron, stainless steels, high nickel alloys, copper alloys, plating, solders, and chemicals
|
Cu
|
Electrical
|
Used in electric motors and generators, power transmission lines, and housing and industrial wiring
|
26% (35) (global)
|
aluminum (36)
|
poor
|
Global value includes building wire and power utility; electrical uses of copper are in nearly every end-use category
|
Industrial
|
Used in industrial equipment and machine tools
|
19% (35) (global)
|
steel (36)
|
adequate
|
|
Transportation
|
Used in aircraft, marine, tanks, automotive, and train systems
|
13% (35) (global)
|
aluminum (36)
|
poor
|
|
Cooling
|
Used in air conditioning equipment and heating tubing
|
7% (35) (global)
|
aluminum (36)
|
adequate
|
|
Plumbing
|
Includes fixtures and pipes
|
6% (35) (global)
|
plastics (polyvinyl chloride) (36)
|
good
|
|
Communications
|
Used in telecommunications wiring
|
5% (35) (global)
|
optical fiber (silicon) (36)
|
exemplary
|
|
Electronics
|
Used in switches, printed circuit foils, transistor bases, microwave tubes, and computers
|
4% (35) (global)
|
aluminum (36)
|
poor
|
|
Architecture
|
Used in roofing and decorative items
|
2% (35) (global)
|
aluminum (36)
|
good
|
|
Building plant
|
Used in nails, rivets, soldering copper, and metal seals
|
1% (35) (global)
|
steel (36)
|
adequate
|
|
Other
|
Includes chemical and inorganic pigments, watches, clocks, and jewelry
|
17% (35) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Zn
|
Galvanizing
|
Used in construction, utilities, industrial equipment, consumer goods, and automotive applications
|
50% (37) (global)
|
aluminum/silicon alloy
|
good
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Brass and bronze
|
Used in construction, transportation (e.g., railway engineering parts and bridge and expansion plates), and electrical applications
|
17% (37) (global)
|
aluminum-based alloys (1)
|
good
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Zinc-based alloys
|
Used in construction, consumer goods, and automotive applications
|
17% (37) (global)
|
aluminum-based alloys (1)
|
good
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Other
|
Includes semi-manufactured items and chemicals
|
16% (37) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
Global values are for 2005
|
Ga
|
Integrated circuits
|
Used in integrated circuits
|
67% (38) (global)
|
silicon
|
good
|
|
Optoelectronic devices
|
Includes laser diodes, light-emitting diodes, and solar cells
|
31% (38) (global)
|
indium phosphide
|
good
|
|
Other
|
Includes research and development and specialty alloys
|
2% (38) (global)
|
not applicable
|
not applicable
|
|
Ge
|
Fiber optic systems
|
Used in telecommunication infrastructure, cellular phones, and optical fibers
|
30% (1) (global)
|
aluminum oxide
|
good
|
|
Infrared optics
|
Used in lenses, windows, and infrared thermal imaging systems, mainly for military applications
|
25% (1) (global)
|
zinc selenide (1)
|
good
|
|
Polymerization catalysts
|
Used in catalysts for production of polyester, synthetic textile fibers, and plastics
|
25% (1) (global)
|
titanium alkoxides
|
adequate
|
|
Electronics and solar electric applications
|
|
