On substances that deplete the ozone layer
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- 6 Transport refrigeration
5.7 ReferencesASHRAE, 2009 ASHRAE, 2009. Design Considerations for Datacom Equipment Centers, Second Edition, ASHRAE TC9.9, Atlanta ASHRAE, 2010 ASHRAE, 2010. “Refrigeration Handbook, chapter 3”, Atlanta Bailer, 2006 Bailer, P. and Pietrucha, U., 2006. “Design and Application of Ammonia Heat Pump Systems for Heating and Cooling of Non-Residential Buildings” 10th International Symposium on District Heating and Cooling, Hannover Brasz, 2008 Brasz, J., 2008. “Assessment of C6F as a working fluid for Organic Rankine Cycle Applications”, Int. Conf. on Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning, Purdue University Brown, 1991 Brown, A. H., 1991. “Return to Ammonia?” Institute of Refrigeration, London Calm, 2011 Calm, J.M., 2011. “Refrigerants for deep mine refrigeration”, Proc. IIR Congress, Prague CGF, 2010 Anonymous, 2010. “Resolution on Sustainable Refrigeration”, The Consumer Goods Forum, Paris CRAA, 2012 CRAA, 2012. Survey of Refrigerant consumption for Industrial Refrigeration in China, CRAA, Beijing Gulanikar, 2013 Gulanikar, A.D., 2013. “Energy Conservation in Ammonia Refrigeration System Installed for Meat Processing Unit in India” Proc 5th Ammonia Refrigeration Technology Conf., IIR, Ohrid Hodnebrog, 2013 Hodnebrog, Ø., Etminan, M., Fuglestvedt, J. S., Marston, G., Myhre, G., Nielsen, C. J., Shine, K. P., Wallington, T. J., 2013. “Global Warming Potentials and Radiative Efficiencies of Halocarbons and Related Compounds: A Comprehensive Review”, Rev. Geophys., 51, 300-378, Washington DC Hutchins, 2005 Hutchins, G., 2005. “Mission Critical Cooling” Institute of Refrigeration Annual Conference, London IIR, 2008 International Institute of Refrigeration, 2008. “Ammonia as a Refrigerant, 3rd Edition”, IIR, Paris Jensen, 1996 Jensen, S.S., 1996. “Conversion from R22 to R717, Practical Experiences from three Industrial Plants” Proc IIR Conf Applications for Refrigerants, Aarhus Kawamura, 2009 Kawamura, K., 2009. “Global Solutions for Ammonia Industrial Refrigeration” ATMOSphere, Brussels Kontomaris, 2014 Kontomaris, K., 2014. “HFO-1336mzz-Z: High Temperature Chemical Stability and Use as a Working Fluid in Organic Rankine Cycles”, 15th Int. Conf. on Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning, Purdue University Kohlenberger, 1995 Kohlenberger, C., 1995. “Gas Turbine Inlet Air Cooling and the Effect on a Westinghouse 501D5 CT”, Proceedings of the International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress & Exposition, Paper No. 95-GT-284, ASME, New York Leslie, 2009 Leslie, N., Sweetser, R., Zimron, O. and Stovall, T., 2009. “Recovered Energy Generation Using an Organic Rankine Cycle System” ASHRAE Transactions Vol. 115 Part 1, Atlanta Madsen, 2009 Madsen, K., 2009. “Living without HFCs: the Danish Experience”, Institute of Refrigeration, London Nielsen, 2000 Nielsen, P.S., 2000. “Effects of Water Contamination in Ammonia Refrigeration Systems, Danfoss, Nordberg Nørstebø, 2013 Nørstebø, A., 2013. “District Heating and Cooling based on large Heat Pumps”, Proc. HPP Workshop, Oslo NZFS, 2008 New Zealand Fire Service, 2008. Report No F128045 “Inquiry into the Explosion and Fire at Icepak Coolstores, Tamahere, on 5 April 2008”, Wellington Olama, 2011 Olama, M. A., 2011. “The National Survey for HCFC based refrigerants for Refrigeration Systems in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia”, UNIDO Pearson, 2009 Pearson, A.B., 2009. “Calculating Freezing Times in Blast and Plate Freezers”, Proc Int. Institute of Ammonia Refrigeration Annual Meeting, Dallas Pearson, 2011 Pearson, A.B., 2011. “Opportunities for Combined Heating and Cooling”, Proc 4th Ammonia Refrigeration Technology Conf., IIR, Ohrid Persichilli, 2012 Persichilli, M., Kacludis, A., Zdankiewicz, E and Held, T., 2012. “Supercritical CO2 Power Cycle Developments and Commercialization: Why sCO2 can Displace Steam”, Power-gen India and Central Asia, New Delhi Pietrzak, 2011 Pietrzak, J., 2011. “Economic Optimisation of Refrigeration Systems at the Design Phase”, Proc 4th Ammonia Refrigeration Technology Conf., IIR, Ohrid Sarraf, 2012 Sarraf, G., Fayad, W., El Sayed, T., Monette, S-P., 2012. “Unlocking the Potential of District Cooling – The Need for GCC Governments to Take Action”, Booz and Co, Chicago Solemdal, 2014 Solemdal, Y., Eikevik, T., Tolstorebrov, I. and Veiby, O., 2014. “CO2 as a refrigerant for cooling of data-center: a case study”, Proc GL2014, IIR, Hangzhou Stene, 2008 Stene, J., 2008. Design and Application of Ammonia Heat Pump Systems for Heating and Cooling of Non-Residential Buildings” Proc GL2008, IIR, Copenhagen Tarlea, 2013 Tarlea, G.M., 2013. “Romania – Ammonia Traditional User” Proc 5th Ammonia Refrigeration Technology Conf., IIR, Ohrid UNEP, 2011 UNEP, 2011. Report of the Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat Pumps Technical Options Committee (RTOC) 2010 Assessment. Vartiainen, 2011 Vartiainen, J. and Salmi, J., 2011. “District Cooling in Helsinki”, Helsingin Energia, Helsinki Zyhowski, 2003 Zyhowski, G., 2003. “Opportunities for HFC-245fa Organic Rankine Cycle Appended To Distributed Power Generation Systems”, Proc. IIR Congress, Washington DC
Holger König Richard Lawton Alexander C. Pachai Giorgio Rusignuolo
6.1 IntroductionTransport refrigeration is a small but vital segment comprising delivery of chilled or frozen products by means of trucks, trailers, vans, intermodal containers and boxes. It also includes the use of refrigeration and air conditioning on merchant, naval and fishing vessels above 100 gross tonnes (GT) (over about 24 m in length). Most development has taken place in the intermodal container industry since 2010. Although many of the lessons are applicable to road transport, differences between containers and road vehicles should not be neglected, and may lead to different system solutions and (possibly) to different refrigerant choices. The three top candidates in the container industry are R-744, hydrocarbons and low-GWP HFCs. In contrast to the 2010 report, more insight is provided on eutectic and cryogenic systems which may be attractive for some types of transport routes. Porthole container ships, which do not exist any longer, are omitted, as are dedicated railway systems where trailer units or intermodal containers units are now utilized. The niche segment of airfreight containers is added. New information about vessels in terms of type and refrigerant charge is provided based on the 2012 IMO study. It appears that the differences in type are large and segmentation is needed in the future. Analyses on refrigerant options are limited in this chapter, and the reader is advised to consult the chapters dealing with industrial and air-conditioning systems. Based on research, the road vehicle fleet size previously estimated at 4 million in the 2006 and 2010 RTOC Reports has been downsized to 2 million. This changes the overall picture in that the refrigerant banks in vessels almost double the banks in other transport sub-segments. While CFCs and HCFCs can be found in older equipment, virtually all new transport refrigeration systems continue to utilize HFCs, with a prevalence of HFC-134a and R-404A. Some systems aboard vessels utilize HCFC-22 in both non-Article 5 and Article 5 countries. R-717 and R-744 systems are being installed on fishing vessels. Appendix A contains a general overview and technical progress information, further, the ozone depletion potential (ODP) and global warming potential (GWP) values of the refrigerants discussed in this chapter are given in chapter 2 of this report.
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