Chapter 1 Don Bosco’s times

Chapter 1

1. Don Bosco’s times

But the upper hand would come from historical events so profound that by the end of the century the face of Europe and, from many points of view, the whole world would end up being altered. Among the most outstanding of the historical events we can single out rapid social and cultural changes, the industrial revolution, the irrepressible aspirations for national unity which were initially overlooked and later carried through with resolute determination in Germany and Italy, Europe’s colonial expansion and consequent economic, political and cultural imperialism.¹⁰

What happened primarily was a gradual and diversified transition from the secular model of society based on status (Aristocracy, Clergy, The Third Estate), to a bourgeois society based on division of classes. This new society was characterised by growing tensions sharpened through the establishment of an industrial proletariat aware of its own poverty, existing injustices, and also aware of its own importance thanks especially to emerging socialist forces.

The Industrial Revolution is of enormous historical relevance. It was the most dramatic revolution since the Stone Age¹¹, with unforeseeable repercussions at all levels of human existence: technical and scientific, economic and social, cultural and political. The industrial revolution, resulting from a capitalist background, claims England as its place of origin during the second half of the 18^th century. By the middle of the 18^th century it had taken firm hold, to varying degrees, in Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland, and in the United States of America. Italy had to wait until the beginning of the last twenty years of the 18^th century. Prior to this some phenomena of pre-industrialisation could have been spotted in places like Turin, but with local import only.

The aspirations towards national, political unity would gradually become clear, widespread and intense, thanks especially to the input of liberal and democratic forces. But they would find opposition from political conservatives, advocates of regionalism, self-interested viewpoints and in Italy as well as all of the above, from the special situation of the Papal States. We have to keep in mind that due to the Congress of Vienna Italy, which for centuries had never achieved national unity, was actually divided into the following political entities:

• 
  the Lombard-Venetian Kingdom under the Austrian Empire (Trent, Trieste and part of Istria had become imperial estates);
  
• 
  the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza given to Maria Louise of Hapsburg (1815 - 1847), former French empress (at her death it was transferred to the Bourbons of Parma);
  
• 
  the Duchy of Modena and Reggio given to Francis IV of Hapsburg-Este (1815-1846);
  
• 
  the Duchy of Massa and Carrara given to Maria Beatrice of Este, mother of Francis IV (when she died, the Duchy was transferred to her son in 1831);
  
• 
  the Duchy of Lucca given to the Bourbons of Parma and Piacenza and later on joined to the grand Duchy of Tuscany at the death of Maria Louise (1847), when the Bourbons of Parma moved to the Duchy of Parma and Piacenza;
  
• 
  the Grand Duchy of Tuscany given to Ferdinand III of Hapsburg-Lorain (1814-1824), brother of the Austrian Emperor Francis I of Hapsburg (1806-1832);
  
• 
  the Papal State without Avignon, given back to Pius VII (1800 - 1823);
  
• 
  the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies given to Ferdinand IV of Bourbon (1815 - 1825);
  
• 
  the Kingdom of Sardinia given to Victor Emanuel of Savoy (1802 - 1825 ) including Savoy, Piedmont, Nice, Sardinia with the added territory of the former republic of Genoa¹².
  

We should not overlook the massive phenomenon of emigration which, from 1842 to 1914, led to some 30 to 35 million Europeans leaving the Old Continent for the rest of the world. A significant factor was strong demographic pressure: the population of Europe, including Russia, was 180 million around the 1800s. In 1850, the population reached 274 million, and in the 1900’s, it reached 423 million.

Together with the growing complications created by economic life, new social and political orders, and by the admittedly slow-growing expansion of freedoms, in-roads were also made by evidently pluralistic world views, political ideologies and new moral and religious ideas. New and different directions emerged both in ideas and activities regarding individual destiny and the way people associated.

Besides persistent conservative and at times reactionary forces, new ideologies arose: liberal ideologies which continued the substantially bourgeois aspect of the French Revolution; democratic and radical ideologies more closely connected with the Jacobean expressions of the French Revolution; national and, later on, nationalistic ideologies of Romantic origin; still later on, socialist ideologies on the one hand, and Christian social ideologies on the other¹⁴.

For an understanding of the Italian spiritual world, its pastoral structure, the nature of the initiatives related to social work and education and catechetical instruction it may be useful to take an historical look at the leading Italian region of Piedmont. The reason behind this is that Piedmont had been connected with decisive events and remarkable changes in the various fields of politics and religion in the socio-economic field as well as in educational and scholastic fields.

1. 1. Elements contributing to political change

It seems appropriate at this point to spell out the succession of Savoy kings:

• 
  Victor Emanuel I (1802-1821);
  
• 
  Charles Felix (1821-1831);
  
• 
  Charles Albert (183l-1849);
  
• 
  Victor Emanuel II (1849-1878);
  
• 
  Humbert I (1878-1900).
  

Compared with the previous order of things most Catholics were unexpectedly forced to confront near traumatic circumstances: freedom of the press and, therefore, freedom of religious propaganda; competition with secular and at times anticlerical forces; the removal of secular privileges by the Siccardi Law (1850) like the ecclesiastical forum, immunity; the expulsion of the Jesuits from the Kingdom of Sardinia, the expulsion of the Sacred Heart Sisters, the expulsion of the Archbishop of Turin, Louis Fransoni; suppression of religious orders and the appropriation of all their goods; then in 1855, the limitations set on schools by the Boncompagni Laws of 1848 and the Casati Laws of 1859.

The decade 1852-1861 was dominated by the President of the Cabinet (Prime Minister), Camillo Benso di Cavour - he had already been a minister previously, in 1850. With the support of a coalition made up of old moderate Liberals and non-extremist Democrats at whose head was Urban Rattazzi, he conducted a vigorous style of politics aimed at secular liberalisation of the State, following the principle of a free Church in a free State. At the same time he carried on an intense and successful activity with the goal of internationalising the problem of Italian unity. This activity took place mostly during the years 1859-1860 with the second war of independence (1859), the expedition of the thousand (I Mille 1860), headed by Joseph Garibaldi, and a series of annexations. It came almost to a complete end with the third war of independence (the annexation of the Venetian territory, in 1866) and with the occupation of Rome (1870).

Already on March 17, 1861,Victor Emanuel II had been officially proclaimed King of Italy, and Rome had been officially declared as its capital: it actually would become so only in 1871 when the royal court and the government moved there. Prior to this event, the court and government had moved to Florence, the temporary capital of Italy, from 1865 to 1871.

The Holy See did not accept what had happened. It did not recognise La legge delle guarantigie¹⁶ (the Guarantee Laws) and, in 1874, forbade all Italian Catholics to take part in the election of the Parliament of a “usurper-state”[non expedit].

The historical Left in Parliament and government, made up of old leftist liberals and supported by parties of varies hues (‘Transformism’ it was called), prevailed over the historical Right (moderate liberals) in 1876. The historical Left, supported by various forces, gave rise to several cabinets headed by Augustine De Pretis, Benedict Cairoli, and Francesco Crispi. These cabinets demonstrated a somewhat secular and radical orientation.

2. 2. Circumstances in the religious area

However the presence of the Church and Catholics within religious and social fields was remarkable.

1. 2.1 The situation in the Catholic Church.

• 
  Pius VII (1800-1823), elected in Venice after Pope Pius VI who died at Valence, France;
  
• 
  Leo XII (1823-1829); Pius VIII (1829-1830);
  
• 
  Gregory XVI (1831-1846);
  
• 
  Pius IX (1846-1878), and
  
• 
  Leo XIII(1878-1903).
  

The restoration of university studies began with Leo XII in 1824. The event marked the starting point of an upward movement of culture, and a more appropriate formation programme for the clergy which reached its peak with Leo XIII.

Catholic social involvement found its first official manifesto in Leo XIII’ s Letter Rerum novarum in 1891, adding to the faithful’s commitment to charitable undertakings during the course of the century, particularly in Germany and Belgium. All this was preceded by a more explicit organisational restructuring of the apostolate of the laity.

Finally, another feature which characterised the 19^th century was the proliferation of religious congregations for men and women directed to charitable deeds, social welfare, education and missionary activities.

The encounter with the new world seemed fundamentally positive when the Church was governed by Pope Pius VII, assisted by Cardinal Consalvi (1757-1824). This relationship faltered under Leo XII and Pope Gregory XVI. Initially, it looked like an enthusiastic encounter, but then, under Pope Pius IX and Cardinal Antonelli, it became ambiguous and finally turned into a politico-religious conflict. The amnesty granted by Pope Pius IX a month after his election (1846) was responsible for an exaggerated enthusiasm which grew with subsequent papal decisions: the resolution to build railways (the November 7 manifesto); the edict on the press, March 15, 1847; the setting up of a consultative body, April 19 and October 14; the creation of the Cabinet of Ministers, June 12; the formation of a civil guard, July 5; the setting up of the Municipal Council of Rome, October 3; the cautious introduction of lay people into the Cabinet, December 29.

All of these events were followed by an address delivered February 10, 1848: O Great God, bless Italy! and by the granting of the Constitution, March 14, 1848. Because of all this popular demonstrations by people manifesting their consent multiplied and the acclamation “Long Live Pius IX” was widely heard along with growing pressure from democratic circles¹⁷.

Pope Pius IX delivered an address April 29, 1848, viewing the cause of Italian national unity with clear delight but unequivocally declaring the impossibility of direct intervention against Austria. This created deeper ambiguities and misunderstandings. A fatal clash was inevitable: the President of the Cabinet, Pellegrino Rossi, was assassinated; the Roman revolution began (November 15-16, 1848) and died away with the creation of a provisional government after Pope Pius IX left for Gaeta (November 24) and with the proclamation of the Roman Republic (February 5, 1849).

Pope Pius IX returned to Rome (1850), which had been recaptured by French troops the previous year. With the help of Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli he followed an intransigent political programme which excluded all possible negotiations with the Italian government regarding a Papal Rome and a Papal State.

In reference to the various and keener layers of Catholic life there is justifiable reason for speaking of Catholics facing a real ‘case of conscience’: it was already difficult to reconcile the fact of being Catholic and a citizen of a secular state. And now another conflict had come to the fore: how to reconcile the passion for the national unity of Italy and the fidelity owed to the Pope, who was both the spiritual leader and the governing authority of a state, the existence of which was incompatible with such a national unity.

2. 2.2 The situation of the Church in Turin.

Five archbishops directed the church of Turin during Don Bosco’s lifetime:

• 
  Colomban Chiaveroti, Camaldolese (1818-1831);
  
• 
  Louis of the Counts Fransoni, from a Genoese noble family, (1832-1862). He was expelled from the Kingdom of Sardinia in 1850 and died in Lyons, France, in 1862;
  
• 
  Alexander of the Counts Riccardi of Nitro, from a Biellese noble family (1867-1870);
  
• 
  Lawrence Gastaldi, from Turin (1871-1883) and
  
• 
  Cardinal Cajetan Alimonda (1883-1891).
  

Archbishop Chiavaroti stood out because of his intense pastoral concern in a diocese which had been tested by the revolutionary and Napoleonic periods. He re-opened the Bra seminary for the students of philosophy, gave a definite ecclesiastical orientation to the seminary at Giaveno and in the house of the Filippini in Chieri entrusted to him by the Holy See, and opened an adjunct to the seminary in Turin (1829) for philosophical and theological students. Don Bosco would do his six years of study of philosophy and theology in this adjunct seminary, from 1835 to 1841. It was during this time that the Convitto Ecclesiastico di San Francesco di Sales (a residential institution for clergy which we can call the Pastoral Institute, in English) opened up in the sub-alpine Capital. The one who started it, in 1817, was theology professor Father Guala. This was the time when confrontational disputes had arisen between the defenders of ‘probabilism’ and ‘tutiorism’, in moral theology. The Convitto Ecclesiastico was approved by Archbishop Louis Fransoni on February 23, 1821.¹⁸

Archbishop Fransoni’s governance had more of an impact on the Turin Church and the other Italian churches because of his confrontation with the State. Archbishop Fransoni’s main concern was the clergy and he dedicated himself to their renewal. Statistical data from 1839 offer us this picture: 623 diocesan priests, 325 religious priests, 216 lay religious, 213 sisters. With the so-called ‘Restoration’ initiated by the Kingdom of Sardinia, the Church had reclaimed the rights and privileges of the ancien régime, thanks to a set of strictly confessional laws with a hint of Church-State openness about them. Ecclesiastical censure was influential and the school system was tinged with clericalism, based on the Regolamento (Regulations) of 1822, clearly of Jesuit origin. The prevailing tendencies were conservative and, at times, even reactionary. Liberal-leaning institutions or innovations, Protestantism, revolutionary spirit were looked upon with suspicion: philanthropic undertakings like Il Ricovero di Mendicità (a program to help the poor); kindergartens created by Aporti; courses on methodology (the clash that occurred between Archbishop Fransoni and Charles Albert on the occasion of the course run by Aporti from the end of August to the beginning of October 1844 was typical); evening and Sunday schools; railways, scientific Congresses. The situation grew worse, at the beginning of 1847, when the first reforms took place and Charles Albert fired the reactionary Count Solano della Margherita. The censure system was re-shaped together with the freedom of the press and worship, the abolition of the right of asylum and the ecclesiastical Forum. From this moment on, the religious history of Piedmont and the conflicts which characterised it were intertwined more and more with the history of Italy, and this echoed far and wide.

Important during this period was the meeting of all the bishops of the ecclesiastical province of Turin at Villanovetta, from July 25 to July 29, 1849. The bishops were concerned about creating a common front to face the new political and religious situation. Among other matters, the problem of the press was examined. The bishops of Mondovì (Ghilardi and Moreno), had been invited “to draw up an association plan for the press and the diffusion of better-written ecclesiastical books”.

Particular attention should be given to prevailing moral and pastoral orientations. Some elements will be pointed out further on when we deal with the Convitto Ecclesiastico, the moral theology orientation offered by St Alphonsus Liguori, and with youth spirituality, developed particularly by the reborn Society of Jesus.¹⁹

3. 3. Change in the socio-economic area

Partial signs of a recovery process emerged around 1850. One of the centres where these signs were more evident was precisely the region of Piedmont and, more particularly, the city of Turin. During the 19^th century, Turin, the capital of Savoy, recorded a remarkable expansion in population, economy and building programs. This city’s population grew five-fold from 65,000 in 1802, to 320,000 in 1891. The rhythm of growth was particularly rapid during a thirty year period, 1835-1864:(the population grew from 117,000 to 218,000, and especially during the period between 1848 -1864 (from 137,000 to 218,000.²²

During the most active period of the beginnings of the Oratory, Turin’s population increased by 80,000 and between 1858-1862 by 25,000. The reasons for this increase were not only social and political but economic: famine in the countryside and the mountains, the increased number of factories in the city, textile factories, arsenals, mills, food factories, arms factories, the coach business, tobacco manufacturing, increased bureaucratic procedures especially for employment, expansion in the construction area (making a lot of work available), improved communications systems (n 1858, Piedmont owned 936 kilometres of railways, while the Kingdom of Naples had only 100 kilometres and the Papal State but 17), extraordinary legislative provisions, initiatives created by the civic administration to prevent the possible crises connected with the transfer of the Capital from Rome to Florence (1865).²³

All of the above explain the typical phenomenon of migration within the area which became, explicitly, the first oratory apostolate of Don Bosco’s - a phenomenon which grew in Italy and France and which was responsible for the setting up of several charitable undertakings in the 1870s.

4. 4. Changes in cultural, educational and scholastic areas

The blossoming of the Romantic movement goes back to the first part of the century; names such as Froebel, Pestalozzi, Fr Girardi and others belonging to the Herbart school of realism, spiritualist in orientation, and later on to positivist pedagogy and teaching. In Piedmont the disputed acceptance of Ferrante Aporti’s kindergartens, begun in Cremona in November 1828, became remarkably evident from the 1930s onwards.

Later on we will mention real or hypothetical contacts between new 19^th-century initiatives in the field of education and the youth institutions created by Don Bosco.²⁵

Looking at school organisation, following the Regolamento (Regulations) of Charles Felix (1822), there is a decisive break from the past. This was provoked, in 1848, by the Boncompagni Law which gave its blessing to a state monopoly in education, thus placing all public education in the hands of the Minister, Secretary of State. The Casati Law of November 13, 1859, gave the final approval to the new general structure of public education.²⁶ The breathing space granted to private, non-state schools, was curtailed by the executive board, year after year, in a way that was not legally admissible. Don Bosco himself had experienced this while running his school. But even the progress of the Italian public school system turned out to be very slow and difficult particularly with regard to the elementary schools and schools for the working classes.²⁷

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