The North Atlantic coastline can be viewed as two distinct regions, New England and the Mid-Atlantic. The New England coast is characterized by cliffs and rocky shorelines along the northern shores, and sandy shorelines and barrier beaches towards the southern end of the region. The Mid-Atlantic portion of the North Atlantic region from the south shore of Long Island to Chesapeake Bay is composed mostly of low-lying coastal plains and barrier islands.
The North Atlantic region is the most densely populated of the four regions. Eleven states, from Maine to Virginia,3 lie along its coast. In 2007, these 11 states were home to almost 70 million people, accounting for 1.9 million business establishments that employed 31 million workers.
This region also has the greatest concentration of development in shore-adjacent counties. Almost half the population, business establishments, and employment are concentrated in the region’s shore-adjacent counties, which also account for more than half of the wages and GDP in the region. In 2007, the GDP of shore-adjacent counties in the North Atlantic region was double that of the Great Lakes region and about three times as great as in the South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico regions. A selection of economic and demographic details from the region is displayed in Table 2.
Table 2. Population, Establishments, Employment, Wages, and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for Coastal Watershed Counties and Shore-Adjacent Counties as Percentages of Regional Total for the North Atlantic Region
States
|
1990
|
2000
|
2007
|
Population
|
61,901,673
|
66,144,152
|
68,254,571
|
Population per square mile
|
302.8
|
323.6
|
333.9
|
Housing
|
25,217,593
|
27,278,605
|
28,800,755
|
Housing per square mile
|
123.4
|
133.5
|
140.9
|
Land area (square miles)
|
204,398.4
|
204,398.4
|
204,398.4
|
Establishments (1,000s)
|
1,539.7
|
1,764.4
|
1,944.4
|
Employment (1,000s)
|
27,573.4
|
30,075.7
|
30,900.6
|
Wages ($1 billion, 2000)
|
$885.1
|
$1,202.6
|
$1,322.5
|
GDP ($1 billion, 2000)
|
$1,824.4
|
$2,538.0
|
$2,949.5
|
|
|
|
|
Shore-Adjacent Counties
|
1990
|
2000
|
2007
|
Population
|
29,009,665
|
30,086,269
|
30,645,006
|
Population per square mile
|
947.3
|
1,037.7
|
1,057.0
|
Housing
|
11,911,135
|
12,349,416
|
12,715,821
|
Housing per square mile
|
388.9
|
425.9
|
438.6
|
Land area (square miles)
|
30,624.5
|
28,993.0
|
28,993.0
|
Establishments (1,000s)
|
749.1
|
830.4
|
923.3
|
Employment (1,000s)
|
12,845.6
|
13,507.6
|
13,926.4
|
Wages ($1 billion, 2000)
|
$450.3
|
$608.8
|
$680.4
|
GDP ($1 billion, 2000)
|
$940.9
|
$1,309.1
|
$1,542.6
|
Source: The National Ocean Economics Program. Shore-adjacent counties are defined as those counties “touched in whole or in part by a state’s coastal zone for purposes of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 as defined by that state and which are adjacent to an ocean, Great Lake, or included river or bay.” This is the definition used by the National Ocean Economics Program
(http://www.oceaneconomics.org/Demographics/coastal_geographies.asp).
R elevant literature found
Most literature specific to the North Atlantic region focused on loss of property value driven by shoreline change (Bin, Kruse, & Landry, 2008; Keeler, Kriesel, & Landry, 2003, Pompe & Rinehart, 2008). Most peer-reviewed studies measured costs and benefits of shoreline protection and erosion mitigation; most of the relevant studies pertained to New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland. The most extensively studied topics were the costs and benefits of beach nourishment. The major socio-economic impact of shoreline change highlighted in this region is the immediate impacts on property and on the recreational value of the affected shoreline—primarily beaches and tourism-related dollars (Pilkey & Dixon, 1996). Accordingly, private property, public shoreline amenities, and the market-based economic values derived from them have been the nearly exclusive domain of past studies on the socio-economic impacts of shoreline change (Bin, Kruse, & Landry, 2008). These studies have primarily taken the form of cost-benefit calculations determining the return on investment of remedial actions. The debate around who should pay for shoreline protection projects, mainly beach nourishment, has continued across the region, with all options such as individuals vs. local communities vs. states vs. federal taxes being considered at the political level (Landry, Keeler, & Kriesel, 2003; Lindsay, Halstead, Tupper, & Vaske, 1992). Traditionally, state expenditure has played a leading role in shoreline change protection and mitigation (Black, Settle, & Donnelley, 1990).
Competing user conflicts over shoreline management solutions may provide valuable insights into social issues across this region. Examples from regulatory documents and the popular press include opposition to the offshore extraction of suitable beach nourishment material due to concerns about impacts on valuable fish habitat and the fishing community’s livelihood (ERG, 2010a). As the demand for nourishment grows, more offshore sand sources may be needed, which could elevate that issue as a significant limiting factor for beach nourishment projects.
Along sheltered coasts (such as estuarine shorelines) where armoring is occurring, bulkheads can effectively narrow the intertidal zone, restricting public access to shorelines that were previously accessible. Private property rights issues appear to be coming into increasing conflict with public benefits of beach nourishment projects. These conflicts arise in a number of situations, including nourishment projects requiring easements from private property owners to benefit the public beach, as well as conflicts over ownership of sand accretion from nourishment projects. While no systematic studies were found documenting a trend in this area, a number of recent court cases in New Jersey, Florida, and Virginia (e.g., City of Long Branch, New Jersey, v. Liu; Stop the Beach Renourishment Inc. v. Florida Department of Environmental Protection; City of Norfolk, Virginia, v, Maxwell) may be indicative of a trend.
Sea-level rise and increased storm frequency are increasing the visibility of and attention to shoreline change issues, highlighting the fact that the risk and vulnerability of the region is primarily physical in nature (Boruff, Emrich, & Cutter, 2005; Cutter, Boruff, & Shirley, 2003). State and local climate change adaptation planning is driving systematic and long-term shoreline management, which may be an opportunity for future collaboration. The potential effects of climate change, particularly if sea-level rise accelerates and storm intensities and frequencies increase, will significantly alter the North Atlantic coastline of the United States. In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicted global sea levels to rise by between 7 and 23 inches (18–59 cm) by the end of the century. More recently, studies are demonstrating that sea levels may increase by 3.3 feet (1 m) by the end of this century (CCSP, 2009). Given the population density and potential social and economic effects of changes in ocean circulation and sea level, the northeast coast of the United States may be one of the most vulnerable regions in the world to climate change. Climate models reflect an accelerated sea-level rise for the northeast coastline with small variability among these models (Yin, Schlesinger, & Stouffer, 2009).
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