Study Guide for

Directing Traffic

1. 
   most traffic depts. computerized to enhance speed & efficiency
   
2. 
   consolidation can eliminate individual station traffic & billing depts.
   

1. 
   advertisers billed after a portion or all spots they purchased have run
   
2. 
   Rozanski quote on billing process, missed spots
   
3. 
   billing dept. sends invoices weekly or biweekly to each client
   
   1. 
      based on spots aired, as recorded & verified by traffic dept.
      
   2. 
      invoices notarized for clients with co-op contracts
      

1. 
   FCC eliminated program log requirements – early 1980s
   
2. 
   stations keep logs designed to serve their needs effectively & efficiently
   
   1. 
      inform programming personnel of what is scheduled for broadcast
      
   2. 
      provide necessary info for traffic & billing depts.
      

1. 
   first radio commercials aired in 1922
   
2. 
   early commercials were broadcast live due to limited recording technology
   
   1. 
      no music, sound effects, singing
      
3. 
   Wheaties cereal first radio jingle – 1926
   
4. 
   mundane commercial production for radio’s first decade
   
5. 
   dialogue spots using comedy & drama to sell product evolved – 1930
   
   1. 
      orchestras, actors, lavishly constructed sound effects
      
6. 
   creation of vinyl discs in 1940s allowed prerecorded sound effects
   
7. 
   live spots remained a mainstay until 1950s innovations shifted emphasis to prerecorded commercial messages
   
   1. 
      magnetic recording tape
      
   2. 
      33 1/3 rpm LPs
      
8. 
   commercials became more sophisticated sounding
   

1. 
   radio adopted formats to survive & prosper – 1950s
   
2. 
   each format has distinct sound; commercials must match station’s format to avoid audience tuneout
   
3. 
   copy, delivery, mixdown for 5 key formats (see quotes in textbook)
   

1. 
   full-time production director (chief, manager) at larger stations
   
   1. 
      records voice-tracks; mixes commercials & PSAs
      
   2. 
      maintains bed music & special effects libraries
      
   3. 
      mixdown of promotional material, special programs
      
   4. 
      basic editing chores
      
2. 
   smaller stations divide production work among on-air staff, often under program director
   
3. 
   most production directors recruited from on-air ranks
   
   1. 
      needs studio dexterity, mixdown skills
      
   2. 
      solid knowledge of editing essential
      
   3. 
      works closely with & usually answers to program director
      
   4. 
      ensures spot sound matches station image
      
   5. 
      also works closely with copywriter, traffic dept.
      

1. 
   on-air & production studios similarly designed & equipped
   
2. 
   usually U-shaped for ease of movement, accessibility
   
3. 
   standard equipment (see illustrations in textbook)
   
   1. 
      audio console/the “board”
      
      1. 
         the very heart of the radio station
         
      2. 
         console designs vary, but basic components the same
         
         1. 
            inputs permit audio energy to enter the console
            
         2. 
            outputs feed audio energy to other locations
            
         3. 
            VU meters measure sound levels
            
         4. 
            pots (faders) control quantity (gain) of sound
            
            1. 
               linear/slide faders replacing rotary faders
               
         5. 
            monitor gains control in-studio volume
            
         6. 
            master gains control general output levels
            
      3. 
         cue mode lets the operator listen to low-power amplified sound from various sources without channeling it through an output
         
   2. 
      reel-to-reel tape machines
      
      1. 
         a production studio workhorse
         
      2. 
         especially designed for editing
         
      3. 
         3 magnetic heads for exchange of electrical & magnetic energy
         
         1. 
            record sound
            
         2. 
            play back sound
            
         3. 
            erase magnetic impressions
            
      4. 
         can record at 2 or 3 speeds
         
         1. 
            3 3/4, 7½, 15 IPS (inches per second)
            
         2. 
            7½ IPS most frequently used
            
         3. 
            high-speed 15 IPS provides better sound quality, easier editing
            
      5. 
         available in monaural, stereo, multitrack
         
         1. 
            multitrack allows sound-on-sound recording (overdubbing)
            
   3. 
      cart (cartridge tape) machines
      
      1. 
         came into use late 1950s
         
      2. 
         simplified recording & playback process
         
      3. 
         a continuous loop of 1/4" magnetic tape in a plastic container (cart)
         
         1. 
            more compact, convenient than reels of tape
            
         2. 
            come in various lengths, depending on need
            
      4. 
         magnetic pulse allows tape to recue itself
         
   4. 
      mini-disc machines
      
      1. 
         gradually replacing standard analog cart decks
         
      2. 
         digitally mix & archive up to 74 minutes of audio on 2.5" reusable discs
         
   5. 
      cassette tape machines
      
      1. 
         adopted mid-1960s
         
      2. 
         small tape cassettes do not require rethreading, rewinding
         
         1. 
            employ 1/8" tape moved at 1 7/8 IPS
            
         2. 
            hold up to 3 hours of recorded material
            
      3. 
         although not integral to mixdown process, cassettes often used for airchecks & actualities
         
   6. 
      audio tape (magnetic tape)
      
      1. 
         chemically treated for preservation
         
         1. 
            acetate & polyester backings for greater durability
            
      2. 
         thickness & width of tape varies depending on use
         
         1. 
            most commonly used 1.5 mm thick & 1/4" wide
            
      3. 
         oxide particles from tape leave residue on machine heads
         
         1. 
            residue plus dust & dirt cause diminished sound quality
            
         2. 
            heads must be cleaned frequently with cotton swab & liquid head cleaner (often isopropyl alcohol)
            
   7. 
      compact discs (CDs)
      
      1. 
         1980s innovation
         
      2. 
         superior sound quality
         
      3. 
         use a laser beam to decode disc’s surface
         
         1. 
            eliminates stylus & turntable noises, distortion, record damage
            
      4. 
         CD players light & compact
         
         1. 
            CD 4.7" in diameter, 1.2 mm thick
            
      5. 
         recordable CDs in use, but can only be encoded once
         
   8. 
      digital audio tape (DAT)
      
      1. 
         technology first introduced in 1970s, made impact in 1990s
         
      2. 
         digital recording converts audio signals into coded pulses (numbers) that are read by computer sound processor; sounds are quantified
         
      3. 
         improved sound reproduction with re-recording capability
         
      4. 
         DAT cassette about half the size of an ordinary analog cassette
         
   9. 
      turntables
      
      1. 
         once a staple of control rooms, being replaced by carts & CDs
         
      2. 
         still needed in production rooms
         
      3. 
         designed for cueing purposes, to allow record to reach proper speed before sound portion is engaged
         
         1. 
            dead-rolling: LP cued in backtracked position & activated from turntable stop position
            
         2. 
            slip-cueing: LP held in place & released as turntable rotates
            
   10. 
       compressors, equalizers, audio processing
       
       1. 
          compressors alter amplitude
          
          1. 
             enhance loudness
             
          2. 
             eliminate ambient noise
             
       2. 
          equalizers (EQs) boost and/or cut frequency
          
          1. 
             create parity between different elements
             
          2. 
             useful in creating special effects
             
       3. 
          audio processors create wide range of effects (reverb, echo, flange)
          
       4. 
          use of samplers, synthesizers, MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) on the rise to enhance production studio’s product
          
   11. 
       patch panel
       
       1. 
          routing device with rows of inputs & outputs
          
       2. 
          connects devices not directly wired into audio console
          
   12. 
       microphones
       
       1. 
          pickup patterns to accommodate different functions
          
          1. 
             omnidirectional: sound from all directions (360 degrees)
             
          2. 
             bidirectional: sound from 2 directions (180 degrees)
             
          3. 
             unidirectional: sound from 1 path (90 degrees)
             
       2. 
          off-mike means being outside the path of a microphone’s pickup
          

1. 
   from simple repairs to complicated rearrangements of sound elements
   
2. 
   splicing tape to add or delete material (see process illustrated in textbook)
   
3. 
   today conventional razor cut approach losing ground to “nondestructive” digital & multitrack methods
   
4. 
   digital editing uses computer & special software
   

1. 
   radio listener must be able to imagine (visualize) whatever sounds convey
   
2. 
   copywriter responsible for writing commercials, promos, PSAs
   
3. 
   must possess complete understanding of medium, audience, product
   
4. 
   station format, programming approach influence style of writing
   
5. 
   mechanics of copy preparation must be observed
   
   1. 
      typed in UPPERCASE, double-spaced for ease of reading
      
   2. 
      1" left & right margins
      
   3. 
      sound effects noted in parentheses
      
   4. 
      proper punctuation, grammar vital
      
   5. 
      uncomplicated sentence structure, conversational style
      
   6. 
      piece must be timed accurately
      
   7. 
      phonetic spelling for unusual, uncommon words
      
   8. 
      avoid complex directions, excessive numbers
      

1. 
   Morin quote on paying dues as an announcer
   
2. 
   must be able to effectively read copy aloud
   
   1. 
      proper enunciation, inflection
      
   2. 
      naturally resonant, pleasant-sounding voice without a regional accent
      
   3. 
      unstrained, relaxed voice; enhanced by proper breathing
      
      1. 
         Read copy aloud before going on air.
         
      2. 
         Take several deep breaths & slowly exhale, keeping eyes closed.
         
      3. 
         Sit still for a couple of moments, arms limp at sides. Tune out. Conjure pleasant images.
         
      4. 
         Stand & slowly move upper torso in circular motion for a minute or so. Flex shoulders & arms. Stretch.
         
      5. 
         When seated, check posture. Don’t slump. Sit erect, not stiffly.
         
      6. 
         Hum. Vibration helps relax throat muscles & vocal cords.
         
      7. 
         Give ample time to settle in before going on air.
         

1. 
   bed: music used in a radio commercial
   
   1. 
      demo CDs provide unfamiliar music
      
   2. 
      movie soundtracks
      
      1. 
         provide variety of music, some bizarre
         
      2. 
         source of special audio effects
         
   3. 
      on-air CDs provide unaired music cuts
      
   4. 
      bed music libraries can be purchased
      
   5. 
      catalogued by assigned account, either on index cards or computer
      
2. 
   sound effects from purchased packages, seldom produced in-house
   

1. 
   Guglielmo Marconi first used electromagnetic (radio) waves to send a message – 1890s
   
   1. 
      helped by earlier findings of James Clerk Maxwell & Heinrich Hertz
      
2. 
   J. Ambrose Fleming developed diode tube – 1904
   
3. 
   Lee DeForest created triode tube called the Audion – 1906
   
4. 
   Reginald Fessenden transmitted voice over wireless – 1906
   
5. 
   Edwin Armstrong developed regenerative & superheterodyne circuits
   
   1. 
      vastly improved receiver efficiency
      
   2. 
      first demonstrated static-free FM broadcast signal – 1933
      

1. 
   radio signals are transmitted on low frequency end of electromagnetic spectrum
   
2. 
   transmitter generates & shapes radio wave to assigned frequency
   
3. 
   audio current sent from control room to transmitter
   
4. 
   current modulates carrier wave to authorized frequency
   
5. 
   antenna radiates radio frequency
   
6. 
   receivers pick up transmissions, converting incoming radio frequency into sound waves
   

1. 
   AM station frequencies 535 to 1705 kHz on Standard Broadcast band
   
   1. 
      10 kc (kilocycles) separate AM frequencies
      
2. 
   FM station frequencies 88.1 to 107.9 MHz on FM band
   
   1. 
      200 kc separate FM frequencies
      
   2. 
      30 kc used for over-the-air transmissions
      
      1. 
         larger channel width allows FM listeners to fine-tune
         
      2. 
         FM immune to low-frequency emissions that cause AM static
         
3. 
   signal propagation
   
   1. 
      ground waves create AM’s primary service area
      
      1. 
         signal travels along earth’s surface, can be blocked by irregular topography
         
      2. 
         night atmospheric reflection of signal creates skywaves that carry signal considerably farther than during daytime
         
      3. 
         may reach listeners hundreds of miles away during the day, thousands of miles away at night
         
   2. 
      FM propagates signal in direct or line-of-sight pattern
      
      1. 
         not affected by day/night changes in atmosphere
         
      2. 
         reach listeners in 80- to 100-mile radius
         
      3. 
         high antenna needed to make signal carry farther
         
4. 
   skywave interference
   
   1. 
      because AM signals carry farther at night, station-to-station inter-ference becomes a problem
      
      1. 
         more than 2,000 AM stations cease operation at sunset
         
      2. 
         others make major transmission adjustments (decrease power)
         
      3. 
         sometimes directional antennas are needed
         
5. 
   station classifications
   

1. 
   FCC established to guarantee efficient use of broadcast spectrum, minimize interference among the 10,000 radio outlets
   
2. 
   AM classifications
   
   1. 
      Class A: clear channel stations under 50 kW, protected from interference for up to 750 miles
      
   2. 
      Class B: 250 watts to 50 kW, must adjust signal at sunset to protect Class I stations
      
   3. 
      Class D: 5 kW regional, serve local & adjacent areas only
      
   4. 
      Class C: 1 kW & under local channels, often must sign off at sunset, found at upper end of AM frequencies
      
   5. 
      AM band will expand (1605 to 1705 kHz)
      
3. 
   FM classifications
   

1. 
   Class C: most powerful, up to 100 kW & 2,000' tower, waves carry about 70 miles
   
2. 
   Class B: up to 50 kW & 500' tower, serve 40- to 50-mile radius
   
3. 
   Class A: up to 3 kW & 328' tower, signal carries 10 to 20 miles
   
4. 
   Class D: noncommercial stations up to 10 watts
   
5. 
   Class C1: up to 100 kW & 984' tower, reach about 50 miles
   
6. 
   Class C2: close to Class B, up to 50 kW & 492' tower, reach approximately 35 miles
   
7. 
   Class C3: typically exceed 6 kW with shorter tower
   
8. 
   Class B1: same tower height as Class A with more power, at least 25 kW & 328' tower, signal carries 25 to 30 miles
   
9. 
   also subclassifications
   

1. 
   analog being replaced by digital audio
   
2. 
   DAB provides superior frequency response, greater dynamic range
   
3. 
   new spectrum space may be allocated to accommodate digital service
   
4. 
   new receivers will be introduced to consumers
   

1. 
   receivers will do more than simply tune frequencies
   
2. 
   format scans, emergency alerts, traffic announcements, ads & promos, other info services possible via a built-in LCD display panel
   
3. 
   RDS or RBDS (radio broadcast data system) technology uses special signaling codes generated by stations
   
4. 
   “sight radio” still in infancy, but market expected to grow
   

1. 
   experience with basic broadcast electronics most important
   
   1. 
      McNamara, Puriez quotes on value of experience
      
2. 
   need knowledge of FCC regulations affecting station technical operations
   
3. 
   good interpersonal skills necessary
   

1. 
   chief operator responsible for station’s technical operations
   
   1. 
      repair & adjust equipment
      
   2. 
      perform weekly inspections, calibrations
      
   3. 
      duties may include installing new equipment, training techs, monitoring radiation levels, planning maintenance schedules, handling budget
      
2. 
   Proof of Performance involves checking frequency response, harmonic distortion, FM & AM noise levels, stereo separation, crosstalk & sub-carrier suppression to ensure station meets technical performance level
   

1. 
   FCC dispensed with maintenance & operating log requirements – 1983
   
2. 
   Station Log still must be maintained
   
   1. 
      info about tower light malfunctions, Emergency Alert System tests, AM directional antenna systems
      
   2. 
      kept on file for 2 years
      

1. 
   EBS implemented following World War II, revamped as EAS in 1994
   
2. 
   for government to notify the public in the event of a major emergency
   
3. 
   latest rules in Code of Federal Regulations, Part 73
   
4. 
   after an Emergency Action Notification (EAN), many stations must cease operations to keep the airwaves clear
   
5. 
   those stations designated to remain on the air after an EAN broadcast info from nation’s base of operations, following rigid instructions
   
6. 
   all stations required to conduct weekly tests of EAS system, airing both announcement & attention signal
   

1. 
   automation programming emphasizes music, minimizes chatter
   
2. 
   today more than 1/4 of commercial stations automated to some degree
   
3. 
   prevalent on FM, but stereo AM generating more use
   
4. 
   saves station money by reducing staffing costs
   
5. 
   high initial equipment investment required
   
6. 
   uses reel-to-reel tape decks & cartridge units (carousels or stack racks)
   
7. 
   programming elements aired when trip mechanism is activated by a cue tone, which is impressed on all program material
   
8. 
   remote switches allow on-air studio to go live when necessary
   
9. 
   operator or computer can maintain programming chain
   
10. 
    satellite program services use computers (at both uplink & downlink sites) to control station automation systems
    
11. 
    direct satellite fed stations need little equipment since programming originates at syndicator’s studios
    

1. 
   FCC requires station license & operators’ permits to be accessible in station area
   

1. 
   causes for the rise of radio consultants
   
   1. 
      more stations - from 2,000 in 1950s to 12,000 in 2000
      
   2. 
      more formats - from half a dozen to several dozen
      
2. 
   by 1970s more than 1/3 of stations used consultant services
   
3. 
   Burns quote on role of radio consultants
   
4. 
   Jacobs, Scott, Halper, Hunter quotes on station uses of consultants
   
5. 
   more than 50 broadcast consultants in U.S. specialize in radio
   
6. 
   some program directors, station rep companies offer consultancy services
   

1. 
   hired to improve or strengthen standing in ratings surveys
   
2. 
   client determines how much control the consultant has to make changes
   
   1. 
      Halper quote on degree of involvement
      
3. 
   services include market research, programming & format design, hiring & training of staff, staff motivation, advertising & PR campaigns, news & public affairs restructuring, technical evaluation
   
4. 
   diagnose the problems that impair a station’s growth & then prescribe a plan of action designed to effect a remedy
   

1. 
   many begin as broadcasters; radio experience very helpful
   
2. 
   Scott quote on solid educational preparation needed
   
3. 
   need strong people skills & objectivity
   

1. 
   arguments against using consultants
   
   1. 
      local flavor lost when an outsider takes control
      
      1. 
         a strong PD can work with consultant to retain local identity
         
   2. 
      station becomes clone of other successful stations
      
   3. 
      consultant cost may not justify gains
      
   4. 
      can become too dependent on consultant
      
      1. 
         once station on the mend, consultant needed only periodically
         
2. 
   most stations using consultants experience improved ratings
   

1. 
   programming syndication prompted by increased use of automation
   
2. 
   nearly half of radio outlets purchase some syndicated programs
   
3. 
   syndicated programs generally cost-effective, of high quality, reliable
   
   1. 
      Ellis quote on time & cost savings
      
   2. 
      station gets high-quality programming & engineering
      
   3. 
      even small station with limited resources can have metro station sound
      

1. 
   syndicators market a variety of distinctive, fully packaged radio formats (from Country to Top 40 to Religious)
   
2. 
   each format fully tested before marketed
   
   1. 
      Stockman quote on consumer-oriented product
      
   2. 
      Scott quote on tailoring for client station
      
   3. 
      audience & market research conducted before implementing format
      
3. 
   format programming packages by seasoned metro market announcers
   
   1. 
      include hundreds of hours of music
      
   2. 
      also breaks, promos, customized IDs
      
4. 
   programming routinely updated
   
5. 
   format usually leased for at least 2 years
   
   1. 
      similar format won’t be leased to another station in same market
      

1. 
   syndicated programming designed for automated equipment
   
   1. 
      Scott list of minimum required automation equipment
      
2. 
   more than 3/4 of stations receive some satellite programming
   
   1. 
      number of syndicators using satellite feeds is at an all-time high
      
   2. 
      many deliver programming only via satellite
      

1. 
   syndicators very particular about sound quality
   
2. 
   periodic airchecks of subscriber stations analyzed for deficiencies