The Australian Centre for Philanthropy and Nonprofit Studies, qut
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- Section 1: The givers—Individual, household and collective giving and volunteering
- Chapter 1: Volunteering engagement
- Insights into volunteering behaviour trends
- International context
- International volunteering: case studies
How is this report structured?For the purposes of this report, subject areas of giving and volunteering were allocated among the research team. Individual authors then researched a particular area of giving guided by a set of common questions. The reviews provide a background on the subject, a review of recent research, where available; and the identification of current and emerging key issues in an Australian and international context. The following guiding areas of inquiry are used in each of the reviews: theories/definitions/datasets (key authors) international context Australian context, and key issues, latest research and emerging trends. Section 1: The givers—Individual, household and collective giving and volunteeringChapter 1: Volunteering engagement Chapter 2: Everyday givers Chapter 3: High-net-worth-individuals and philanthropic foundations Chapter 4: How do philanthropists select a charity? Chapter 5: Cultural diversity in giving and volunteering Chapter 6: Charitable bequests Chapter 7: Giving collectives Chapter 8: Regular, planned or pledged giving Chapter 9: In-kind giving
Dr Christopher BakerCentre for Social Impact, Swinburne University of Technology What is volunteering?Volunteering is an activity that belongs to a broader cluster of helping behaviours (Wilson 2000) and generally refers to ‘time willingly given for the common good without financial gain’ (Volunteering Australia 2015, 2). Existing research on volunteering indicates that motivations and influences that inform volunteering engagement are diverse and highly subjective (Bekkers 2010; Dittrich and Mey 2015; Einolf and Chambré 2011; Gray, Khoo and Reimondos 2012; Manning 2010; Taniguchi 2006). Previous studies indicate that gender, age/life stage, education level, cultural background and religion are key factors that influence the type and amount of volunteering engagement (Dittrich and Mey 2015; Einolf and Chambré 2011; Gray, Khoo and Reimondos 2012; Lyons and Nivison-Smith 2006a; Manning 2010; Wang and Graddy 2008). Insights into volunteering behaviour trendsVolunteering habits change over time and different types of volunteering are more common among certain age, life stage, income, education, gender and religious groups (Dittrich and Mey 2015; Einolf and Chambré 2011; Gray, Khoo and Reimondos 2012; Lyons and Nivison-Smith 2006a; Manning 2010; Wang and Graddy 2008). Research also indicates that people are more likely to volunteer if they are regular religious practitioners or if their partner also volunteers (Lyons and Nivison-Smith 2006a; Manning 2010; Wang and Graddy 2008). Although volunteering does not traditionally involve financial reimbursement for the volunteer, volunteers are likely to receive other benefits for their generosity (Wilson 2000), such as capacity building, knowledge acquisition or personal growth. There has been some conjecture among existing studies about the influence of gender on volunteering. In particular, findings on the influence of gender on motivations, volunteering activity choices and time spent volunteering have been disparate (Bekkers 2010; Dittrich and Mey 2015; Einolf and Chambré 2011; Gray, Khoo and Reimondos 2012; Manning 2010; Taniguchi 2006). Some studies report higher rates of volunteerism among women (Manning 2010), while others indicate that men are more engaged in volunteering activities (Bekkers 2010; Dittrich and Mey 2015; Hartmann and Werding 2012). Allowing for national and cultural differences, attempts have been made to explain this conjecture by considering other variables. In comparison, there is a stronger collective consensus within the existing literature regarding type of volunteer work and gender, with corroborated indications (in both international and local contexts) that women are more likely to volunteer in ‘caring’ roles, such as with the elderly (Dittrich and Mey 2015). Age is consistently identified as an important factor when it comes to how and when people give. A singular focus on older volunteers has been of particular interest in Australian volunteering studies (Taghian, D'Souza and Polonsky 2012; Warburton and McDonald 2009; Warburton and McLaughlin 2005; Warburton and Stirling 2007). The consensus is that volunteer rates decline with age but the percentage of time given increases (Gray, Khoo and Reimondos 2012; Taghian, D'Souza and Polonsky 2012; Warburton and McLaughlin 2005). It has also been found that volunteering can promote social connectedness and quality of life in older people (Taghian, D'Souza and Polonsky 2012). International contextThere are a number of global trends in volunteering. While acknowledging that there are always unique features of volunteering within every country, Merrill (2006) analysed data on volunteering trends from nine different countries (including Australia) in order to uncover common themes, including: time pressures associated with juggling volunteering with paid work and personal life ambiguity and uncertainty about the definition of volunteering programs emerging in several countries (in particular Australia, the United States (US), Canada, Europe and some Asia Pacific countries), due to the recognition of an ageing population, that either engage older individuals in volunteerism or provide care for this group indications of the need to develop more pluralistic approaches to engage individuals with more diverse backgrounds, skills and abilities in volunteering work the need to recognise the broader social benefits of volunteering, such as the role of volunteering in promoting social capital through reciprocity and community engagement, and recognising that using information technology, such as internet platforms, in volunteering can facilitate exceptional innovation and/or overcome isolation. Understanding these global trends and challenges is important if the third sector and government are to predict and/or influence the trajectory of volunteering activities and civic engagement. International studies have also explored the influence of gender, education, religion and age on volunteering, along with motivations behind volunteering engagement. Several studies have utilised data-sets from larger, national studies on giving and volunteering. Religion and gender are two of the key variables consistently found to influence volunteering. Research into the former reveals a corroborated consensus that religiosity is associated with increased volunteerism (Manning 2010; Wang and Graddy 2008). International volunteering: case studiesThe 2013 General Social Survey studied trends in giving, volunteering and participating in Canada (Turcotte 2015b). Results indicate overall volunteer participation rates of 44% among individuals aged over 15. This involved a drop from 47% participation in 2010, although the total hours volunteered remained stable (Turcotte 2015b). While this study indicates that Canadians aged 15–19 are those most likely to engage in volunteering activities, results reveal that overall volunteers are becoming older. The largest decline occurred among those aged 35–44, decreasing from 54% in 2010 to 48% in 2013 (Turcotte 2015b). More recently however, the 2014 General Social Survey summary results found the 15-17 age group were more likely to volunteer (42%). Gender has also emerged as a common influence on volunteerism. Using data from the National Survey of Midlife Development in the US (MIDUS) 1995 – 96, Taniguchi (2006) looked at the effects of employment and family work on volunteering among Caucasian adults, and how these effects differ between genders. It was reported that level of employment, such as part- or full-time, did not significantly influence volunteering habits (Taniguchi 2006). Although there was no significant difference in volunteerism between part- or full-time employment, unemployment was associated with a decrease in volunteering. Among women, engagement in full-time work was negatively associated with volunteering (Taniguchi 2006). The intersecting influence of gender and religion on volunteerism has also been explored (Manning 2010). Manning (2010) utilised secondary data from the 1992 iteration of the US Health and Retirement Study (HRS), a survey designed to capture changes in labour force participation during the end of working life (University of Michigan 2015). The HRS is a longitudinal study, repeated every two years (University of Michigan 2015). The 1992 HRS surveyed 12,000 people aged between 51 and 61. Manning’s analysis emphasises the heterogeneity of determinants that influence volunteering. Key findings were that women were 15.8 times more likely to volunteer in later life, and also likely to volunteer more hours, and gender was a stronger predictor of volunteering in later life than religion (Manning 2010). Due to Manning’s reliance on a dataset greater than 10 years old these findings may not accurately reflect volunteering trends today. Data from a more recent HRS survey could be analysed to determine this. While statistics presented by Manning are likely to have changed since 1992 other studies do support the general contention that gender influences the type of volunteering individuals engage in (Dittrich and Mey 2015; Gray, Khoo and Reimondos 2012; Manning 2010). In another study conducted in the US, Wang and Graddy (2008) examined the influence of social capital on charitable giving to both religious and non-religious organisations. The study utilised secondary data from the 2000 Social Capital Community Benchmark Survey. Social capital was found to foster charitable giving, with individuals with more diverse social networks giving more to religious and non-religious networks, highlighting the importance of trust and social connections in determining volunteering behaviour (Wang and Graddy 2008). Different reasons for religious and secular (non-religious) giving were also observed in the study. Religiosity, marital status, number of children, general happiness and home ownership were found to impact on religious giving, but not secular giving. Dittrich and Mey (2015) studied trends in volunteering for charitable organisations in Germany. Analysis of data from a large-scale, online survey indicates that men donate more time to regular volunteering than women, but that women volunteer more frequently with the poor and elderly. Large household size was also found to negatively impact on regular volunteering participation (Dittrich and Mey 2015), whereas having children was found to have a positive influence on volunteering participation rates (Dittrich and Mey 2015). MacNeela (2008) and Bekkers (2010) examined motivations for initial and sustained volunteering engagement from a psychological perspective. The study by MacNeela involved interviews with 26 volunteers engaged in work with nonprofit health and social care services. Data analysis indicated four primary themes of volunteering: initial motives, connections to organisations and causes, benefits, and challenges. Both benefits and challenges were found to be significant motives in volunteering. Benefits that volunteers reported included enhancing their self-esteem through organisational involvement. Bekkers (2010) conducted a study into the social and psychological incentives of giving and volunteering, as well as the personality characteristics associated with these activities within Dutch society. This study analysed data from the 2000 edition of the Family Survey of the Dutch Population. Results indicated that women, young people, those with higher education levels, Catholics, individuals earning a lower hourly wage, those living outside of urban environments, and self-reported extroverts were most inclined to show intentions to volunteer (Bekkers 2010). Limited research has been conducted on volunteering trends among immigrants. Cattacin and Domenig (2014) conducted 44 interviews with transnationally mobile people in Switzerland in an attempt to discover motivations that inform volunteering activity. Results show that associations played a significant role in promoting inclusion for participants in their new living place (Cattacin and Domenig 2014). Three key motivational themes that can influence volunteerism in transnationally mobile individuals were identified: instrumental motivation to access rights and material opportunities, such as employment opportunities or knowledge/information; subjective motivation as a reflection of personal identity and values; and social motivation to be united with like-minded individuals in helping activities in ways that are both individualising and generalising (Cattacin and Domenig 2014). Hartmann and Werding (2012) analysed data from the European Social Survey to study the relationship between two major forms of charitable giving: donating money and giving time (volunteering). The results indicated that the giving of time may precede the giving of money, acting as a screening mechanism whereby donors determine the ways in which their financial contributions could be used (Hartmann and Werding 2012). The results of this study also suggested that men are more likely to volunteer than women, though they are less likely to donate money. Employment status and average or higher income were associated with increased rates of donating both time and money (Hartmann and Werding 2012). Directory: wp-content -> uploads -> 2016 2016 -> 2017 afoCo Landmark Scholarship Program 2016 -> Instructions for the Preparation of Camera-Ready Contributions to the Conference Proceedings 2016 -> Step student Scholarships for Year 10-13 2016 -> The united church of canada 2016 -> Idan raichel biography – May 2016 Brief Producer, keyboardist, Lyricist, composer and Performer Idan Raichel 2016 -> An introduction to centre’s interventions expanding access to justice 2016 -> Sanchar Shakti 2016 -> Unit analysis should help here. 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