Theology beacon dictionary of theology
For Further Reading: Barclay
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- GOVERNMENTAL THEORY OF THE ATONEMENT.
- For Further Reading: Miley
- GOSPEL, AGAPE, MERCY REDEEMER (REDEMPTION), MEANS OF GRACE.
- GRAVE.
- Word Book of the Bible, 131-36; Johnston, "Love in the New Testament," IDB, 3:168-78; Wiley, CT, 3:37-64.
- For Further Reading: Barth, "An Exegetical Study of Matthew 28:16-20," in Anderson, ed„ The Theology of the Christian Mission; Boer, Pentecost and Missions;
- GROTIAN THEORY.
- For Further Reading: Kennedy, The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Education, 298-300; ERE, 6:445-50.
- COMFORTER (THE), PROVIDENCE, REASON.
- JUSTIFICATION, FORGIVENESS, ACCOUNTABILITY ORIGINAL SIN, FALL (THE), GENETICISM.
For Further Reading: Barclay, New Testament Words, 101-6; Dodd, The Apostolic Preaching and Its Devel- opments; Dunn, Unity and Diversity in the New Testa- ment, 11-32; Kittel, 2:721-36; Morris, The Apostolic Preaching of the Cross. ROBERT W. WALL GOVERNMENTAL THEORY OF THE ATONEMENT. This is the theory of the Atonement that has long been associated with Arminianism. It is the view that Christ's death on the Cross made it possible for God the Father to forgive those who repent and believe, and still maintain His governmental control over us creatures. According to this view, if God were simply to forgive us, without Christ's death, we would not understand that our sin was very serious. Thus we would likely go back to sin, not breaking with it. If, however, we see that the Father could offer the forgiveness only because of Christ's crucifixion, we will see the seriousness of sin and will more likely break with it. Thus God would be able to justify us and still remain just (Rom. 3:23-26). That is, He would be able to justify us and still maintain His governmental control over us—without having anarchy on His hands, that is. The initial seeds of this Atonement theory are in the teachings of James Arminius (c. 1560-1609), yet it was one of his students, Hugo Grot-ius, a lawyer, who first developed it formally. John Miley, late 19th century, in his The Atone
For one thing, it is unlimited: it is not limited to persons God had previously elected to be saved, but is accomplished for everyone. Such phrases as "he died for all" (2 Cor. 5:15) means "all," literally, and not, as in Calvinism, "all of the elect." It is also vicarious: Christ died for us (Isaiah 53). Further, it is substitutionary: Christ died in our stead (2 Cor. 5:21). It emphasizes such matters as God's love 0ohn 3:16). Importantly, according to this theory, Christ did not pay the penalty for our sins; instead, He suffered for us. Scripture never says that Christ was punished for us, or paid the penalty, as Calvinists teach. Instead, Scripture teaches, often, that Christ suffered for us (Luke 24:46; Heb. 2:18; 1 Pet. 2:21; 3:18; 4:1). His death was of such a nature that a holy God could accept it as a substitute for penalty. Its merits as a substitute could provide a moral basis for forgiveness without compromising either God's holiness or the integrity of moral government, including the morality of the terms of forgiveness, viz., repentance, faith, and obedience. Scripture teaches in this way for several reasons. (1) Since Christ had not sinned, He was not guilty; so when He died on the Cross, He suffered, instead of being punished. (2) Also, had He been punished, God the Father could not have still forgiven us who believe—He would have had what His justice demanded, and could not have also forgiven us. (3) Further, if Christ had died for all, and if, for all, He had taken the punishment, there would have been no punishment in hell for anyone. We Arminians believe that what He did could not have been to pay the penalty. Calvinists can teach this (although Scripture does not), since they say He died only for the elect, and that it will be applied to the elect unconditionally. See ATONEMENT, LAMB OF GOD, ARMINIANISM, DEATH OF CHRIST, HIGH PRIESTHOOD OF CHRIST, SATISFACTION, MORAL INFLUENCE THEORY OF THE ATONEMENT. MYSTICAL THEORY OF THE ATONEMENT, PENAL SATISFACTION THEORY OF THE ATONEMENT.
The above are anticipations of the full NT usage of the term "grace," especially as developed by the apostle Paul. We do not know for certain that it was the apostle who first developed the peculiar meaning of the Greek charts beyond its secular reference to "charm" or "attractiveness," but it is certain that he, by his Epistles, made a special place for "grace" in the theological vocabulary of the Early Church. That the special Christian use of the term is predominantly Pauline may be seen in its total absence in Matthew, Mark, 1 John, 3 John, and Jude. In all the non-Pauline books the word appears only 51 times. Twice as many occurrences, 101, are found in the Pauline corpus as in the rest of the NT. It is not totally accurate to say that grace is the undeserved favor of God toward sinful man, especially if this be interpreted statically. God's grace is dynamic. It is God's love in action empowering those whom God regards with favor. Even so, it is clear that grace excludes every pretense of merit on the part of the recipient; any legal conception of religion is excluded. Grace is God's free, unmerited, and nonlegal way of dealing with sinful man. The essence of the doctrine of grace is that although man deserves God's being against him, He is for him. In a very specific and concrete way God is for us. In the person of Jesus Christ, God has effectively acted. Through Him rebellious man experiences the undeserved love of God and enters into a relationship with Him. For this reason the NT almost invariably connects the word "grace" with Christ, either explicitly or by implication. The life, suffering, death, and resurrection of Jesus reflect the action of God's grace in history to redeem mankind. See GOSPEL, AGAPE, MERCY REDEEMER (REDEMPTION), MEANS OF GRACE.
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For Further Reading: IDB, 2:463-68; HD8, 345-46; GMS, 410-13. W. Stephen Gunter GRATITUDE. See praise. GRAVE. See hades. GREAT COMMANDMENTS. Found in Matt. 22:36-39; Mark 12:29-31; and Luke 10:27-28, the Great Commandments occur in three forms. Though very similar, they contain some significant differences. (1) Mark and Luke have a fourfold description of man, though ordered differently, adding "strength" to Matthew's trilogy of heart, soul, and mind, probably on the basis of the LXX of Deut. 6:5. Attempts at determining the original form on the lips of Jesus have met with limited success. (2) In Matthew and Mark, Jesus speaks in response to a question from a scribe, while Jesus' questioner recites the commands in Luke. (3) The context in Matthew and Mark is a controversy with Jewish religious leaders, while Luke's context includes the parable of the Good Samaritan told as a response to the scribe's attempt at self-justification. Whether Luke is reporting a separate incident or using his own, divergent source here is a moot point. (4) In Matthew, the scribe is clearly hostile and does not commend Jesus, while in Mark he expresses grudging admiration for Jesus' perceptiveness. (5) Especially in Matthew and less distinctly in Mark, a distinction is made between the first and second commandments while in Luke, they are combined into one. (6) Mark alone includes the Shema (Deut. 6:4). But these differences ought not to obscure the clear intention of Jesus: Total love of God shown in love of neighbor is the foundation of the Christian's response to God. Without these two facets of love, Christianity does not exist. The discussion of which was the greatest commandment was not among the rabbis, nor was the general combination of these two precepts totally foreign to Judaism. Their combination, though mot explicitly made, lies behind the clear call for justice by the prophets (cf., e.g., Mic. 6:5) and permeates the whole covenant scheme instituted by Yahweh as the rule of all relationships in Israel. Both Philo and The Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs contain similar sentiments, although the latter may have come under Christian influence. What is new is the decisive manner in which Jesus cuts through the legal morass and penetrates to the very heart of the Deuteronomic belief. If Judaism wished to find a commandment which could sum up the whole system of law and which would inevitably happen if the law were followed, Jesus took the opposite track of pointing to the Great Commandments as the very basis of the whole covenant relationship of which the law was merely an expression. "For Judaism, good conduct is a part of religion; for Jesus, it is a product of religion" (Manson, The Teaching of Jesus, 305). The first commandment, taken from Deut. 6:5, demands total and undivided loyalty to God. Heart, soul, mind, and strength are not constituent elements of human nature, but four dimensions of function or activity (cf. Wiley, CT, 3:52). Together they leave no room for doubt that God demands nothing less than absolute and complete devotedness. By citing Deut. 6:5, Jesus shows the essential continuity between the old covenant community and the basis of the new. The second commandment, found in Lev. 19:18, also formed part of Jewish piety, but Jesus deliberately broadens the definition of neighbor well beyond the common point of view, though the same breadth of understanding is also seen in rare instances in ancient Judaism. The link Jesus makes between the two commandments is as close as possible. Though love of God is not love of neighbor, Jesus implies what other NT writers make explicit: Loving one's neighbor is an inseparable corollary of loving God (1 John 4:20 f). "Love to man is dependent upon love to God and love to God is proved by love to man" (Cranfield, A Theological Word Book of the Bible, 135). All moral demands are fulfilled by love of neighbor, according to Paul (Rom. 13:8; Gal. 5:22; 6:2; Col. 3:14); and, according to John, love is the sign of the new community (John 13:35). But while love is commanded, its practice is wholly dependent upon God's love to us and His work in us. Its presence and practice in our lives is not an ability we cultivate and thereby earn merit. Rather, it is the gift of God, demonstrated in the life and death of His Son and spread abroad in our hearts by the Holy Spirit (Rom. 5:5, 8; 15:30). Clearly, the commands are not enforceable but can only be obeyed by one who has an inward transformation which manifests itself in outward behavior (cf. Manson, 305). This wholeness of response to God and its expression in love to our fellowman lies at the very heart of Christian holiness. "Faith working by love is the length and breadth and depth and height of Christian perfection" (Wesley, Works, 14:321). See love, agape, holiness, love and law. For Further Reading: Cranfield, "Love," A Theological 242 GREAT COMMISSION—GROW, GROWTH Word Book of the Bible, 131-36; Johnston, "Love in the New Testament," IDB, 3:168-78; Wiley, CT, 3:37-64. Kent Brower GREAT COMMISSION. The Great Commission is found in some form in all of the Gospels and in Acts: Matt. 28:18-20; Mark 16:15-18; Luke 24:46-49; John 20:21-22; Acts 1:8. Two different accounts of this command of our Lord to the apostles supplement each other to give a brief summary of elements that are involved in the mission to which Christ has called the Church. The resources of the mandate are the unimpeachable authority of Christ and the inexhaustible power of the Holy Spirit. Christ was sent into the world by the authority of His Father, and He sends us into the world by His own authority (John 20:21), which is cosmic in extent —-over heaven and earth (Matt. 28:18)—and over all powers (Mark 16:17-18). This authority is accompanied by the enabling power of the Holy Spirit for the task of mission (Acts 1:8), which came to the disciples historically first at Pentecost, but which was and must be repeated successively, in every generation, for the full empowerment of believers for mission. The privileges embodied in the Commission are the unmerited representation of Christ as God's ambassadors (2 Cor. 5:20) and the undaunted witness to Christ as God's way of salvation. Each Gospel indicates that we are chosen to be sent and have the consequent responsibility to go. The role of witness is explicitly mentioned in Luke and Acts as empowered by the Spirit, and the medium of preaching is indicated by Mark and Luke. The content of the message to be shared is identified as the gospel (Good News) by Mark but further specified by Luke as including repentance and forgiveness of sins. The purpose of the mission is the uncompromising goal of making disciples, which results in the unveiling of the mystery of the constituting of the Church. Jesus said little about His Church other than that He would build it (Matt. 16:18), yet here in this command He indicates that evangelism by the Church ("make disciples") is to be accompanied by incorporation into the Church (by baptism as the rite of initiation) and followed by discipling in the Church ("teaching them") (Matt. 28:19-20). The Great Commission does not make sense unless it is assumed that the Church is God's primary agent of mission. The extent of the task is indicated by the unlimited assignment made glorious by the unending presence of Jesus himself. The universal intent of the gospel is to be matched by the pursuit of the mission of making disciples in "all the nations" (Matthew; Luke), "all the world" (Mark), and "to the remotest part of the earth" (Acts, all nasb). How long is the task to continue? "To the end of the age" (Matthew, nasb), but never without the divine presence of Jesus himself mediated to us by His Holy Spirit. Acts 1:8 forms the outline for the whole Book of Acts in the account of how the Early Church fulfilled the Great Commission in its day. The Reformers mistakenly believed that the Great Commission was addressed only to the apostles and was fulfilled by them, making it no longer relevant for the Church in their day. It was not until the churches rediscovered the Great Commission as a contemporary mandate that the modern missionary movement developed in the 18th and 19th centuries. See mission (missions, missiology), evangelism, discipling, heathen (fate of), church. For Further Reading: Barth, "An Exegetical Study of Matthew 28:16-20," in Anderson, ed„ The Theology of the Christian Mission; Boer, Pentecost and Missions; Warren, I Believe in the Great Commission. Paul R. Orjala GREEK ORTHODOX. See eastern orthodoxy. GROTIAN THEORY. See governmental theory of the atonement. GROW, GROWTH. To grow is to spring up and develop to maturity. The concept comes from the biological world, where plants and animals, once very small, gradually enlarge until they are full grown. The essential elements are (1) a small beginning, often only microscopic, (2) enlargement through assimilation of nourishment from outside the organism, (3) increments of change so small that growth is almost imperceptible, (4) progressive enlargement until maturity is reached. Several Hebrew words translated "grow" mean to "spring up," "grow up," or "go out." The Greek auxano means "to increase," "grow up." Theology, however, is chiefly concerned with the use of the word to describe personal development and spiritual maturing. Luke recognizes growth of body, person, and spirit when he writes: "Jesus increased in wisdom and stature, and in favour with God and man" (2:52). Paul knew that such growth normally brings changes for the better: "When I was a child, I spake as a child . . . but when I became a man, I put away childish things" (1 Cor. 13:11). GUIDE, GUIDANCE 243
In spiritual growth Jesus implied immaturity at the beginning when He said, "Except a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God" 0ohn 3:3). And Peter exhorts Christians to "grow in grace, and in the knowledge of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ" (2 Pet. 3:18). The facts of growth undergird the importance of Christian education. In children, the church deals with mental and emotional immaturity; for children there must be nurture and time to grow. Even adult new Christians are often almost completely ignorant of biblical doctrine and practice. Such persons must be helped to "grow ... in the knowledge of our Lord and Saviour." This growth occurs from assimilating new spiritual understandings. Then, based upon a continuing commitment to translate Christ's truth into a way of life, one makes gradual changes in his lifestyle. Here is the educational and biblical process of "precept upon precept; line upon line . . . here a little, and there a little" (Isa. 28:10). Spiritual growth, like biological development, requires nourishment from the outside. But because each person largely determines the conditions of his own spiritual growth, each must take initiative in reaching out for sustenance. Peter exhorts, "As newborn babes, desire the sincere milk of the word, that ye may grow thereby" (1 Pet. 2:2). Organic growth stops at some size predetermined by the Creator, but personal growth continues as long as the spirit seeks nourishment from divine resources. Ideally growth in spirit continues until we "become full-grown in the Lord—yes, to the point of being filled full with Christ" (Eph. 4:13, TLB). Because growth depends also on favorable environment, Paul reminds us that the church includes God's husbandmen (cf. 2 Tim. 2:6). They are charged with setting up conditions and incentives conducive to spiritual nurture and growth. Christian teachers are called to explain biblical truth and to urge personal choices based on the new understandings. The Bible also teaches that God's whole kingdom grows. Jesus says, "The kingdom of God [is] as if a man should cast seed into the ground; ... and the seed should spring and grow up,.. . first the blade, then the ear, after that the full corn in the ear" (Mark 4:26-28). All who understand God's plan for growth are content to keep working at the causes—and to let God give the increase (cf. 1 Cor. 3:6). See discipling, progressive sanctification, means of grace, leisure. For Further Reading: Kennedy, The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Education, 298-300; ERE, 6:445-50. A, F. Harper GUIDE, GUIDANCE. The Hebrew word nachah is a primary word that means "to lead, to guide." It is used frequently with reference to divine guidance. The Greek noun hodegos means "leader, guide"; the verb, hodeged, to lead. Being guided by God is a major emphasis of the OT. Repeatedly divine guidance is seen hovering over God's people: "Thou in thy mercy hast led forth the people . . . thou hast guided them" (Exod. 15:13). David was confident of God's guidance and by faith yielded himself to divine providence although he did not see or understand the mystery of the divine plan (Ps. 31:3). There is compassion in the guidance given: "I will lead him also, and restore comforts unto him" (Isa. 57:18). Typically the guidance of the OT was by dreams, by voice, or by test. In the NT guidance is primarily by the indwelling Spirit. John teaches that knowledge of the truth is dependent upon guidance: "Howbeit when he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth" (John 16:13). This was a promise that the Holy Spirit would guide the unfinished education of the disciples. This same guidance is promised to all the sons of God: "For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, they are the sons of God" (Rom. 8:14). Guidance may be positive or negative. While Paul was forbidden to preach in Phrygia and Galatia (Acts 16:6-7), he was later positively guided to Macedonia (vv. 9-11). Guidance is promised to those who by consecration are willing to be led (Ps. 25:9; 37:5). The destiny of the Christian will be accomplished if he confidently trusts all to God. The leading of the Spirit requires that the believer be Spirit-filled: "For it is God which work-eth in you both to will and to do of his good pleasure" (Phil. 2:13). The major concern of the Christian is not performing a certain task or living at a specific location, but being fully consecrated (Rom. 12:1-2), thus permitting the Spirit to work His will within. The guiding role of the Spirit is based upon His intimate knowledge of the will of the Father (Rom. 8:26-27). God will make His will known sufficiently for the believer to be able to act in obedience. The more mature a Christian, the better he understands the intimate and personal guidance of the Spirit. The immature Christian lives in the now and demands immediate satisfaction. The mature disciple can wait and deny himself in the
present for clear guidance in the future. The mature are not led away by imagination, sudden impulses, or strong impressions. The Bible is consistent in its recognition of the need for divine guidance. While Jeremiah saw man's lack of knowledge as the basis of the need for guidance (Jer. 10:23), the Psalmist saw the lack of rest and peace (Ps. 23:2); Isaiah saw the lack of foresight (Isa. 42:16); and John saw lack of knowledge of the truth (John 16:13). The Spirit does guide through inner impression or revelation, but always in harmony with the Scriptures and with providence. If in accord with the Scriptures the impression will also be in accord with righteousness. There is also in true guidance an inner reasonableness. The criteria of Scripture, providence, tightness, and reason enable us to judge whether our impression is truly of the Spirit. See COMFORTER (THE), PROVIDENCE, REASON. For Further Reading: Metz, Studies in Biblical Holi-
Guilt is correlative to righteousness and holiness. Where the prevailing idea of righteousness is ceremonial (as in Leviticus 4—5), guilt may be incurred for unwitting defilement. But where the prevailing idea of righteousness and holiness is moral, as in the later OT and throughout the NT, guilt implies personal and conscious responsibility that can only be put away by God's gracious act of justification (Rom. 5:1, 8-10; cf. 1 John 1:9-10). Guilt attaches to "sins of omission" as well as positive acts of rebellion against God (John 3:17-21; Jas. 4:13-17)—and chiefly to "unbelief," the failure or refusal to accept the gospel offer of grace in obedient faith (John 3:18; 16:9). Theologians have long discussed whether or not "original guilt" comes upon the individual as a consequence of Adam's sin. Reformed (Calvinistic) theologians generally affirm that all are guilty in Adam of the original transgression and some could thus speak of "infants a span long" burning "in hell" because of their "guilt in Adam." Most Arminians affirm original sin as the consequence of Adam's transgression but deny personal responsibility (guilt) as a result of that sin until it is confirmed by the individual's own sinful choices. Guilt is universal upon all who have come to the age of moral choice (Rom. 3:23; 1 John 1:10). It cannot be expunged by works of righteousness (Titus 3:5-7) or by obedience to the law in the present and future (Rom. 3:10-20) but only "by his grace as a gift, through the redemption which is in Christ Jesus, whom God put forward as an expiation by his blood, to be received by faith" (Rom. 3:24-25, RSV). A recognition of guilt leading to repentance and confession is the work of the Holy Spirit as an act of God's prevenient grace, the grace that comes to uS before we come to Christ (John 16:7-11). The remedy for guilt therefore is justification as set forth in Paul's sustained argument in Rom. 1:18—5:11. Justification places the believer before God absolved of moral responsibility for his guilty past "as if he had never sinned," although in remembered gratitude for grace conferred (1 Tim. 1:15-16). See JUSTIFICATION, FORGIVENESS, ACCOUNTABILITY ORIGINAL SIN, FALL (THE), GENETICISM. For Further Reading: Rail, "Guilt," "Guilty," 7SBE, Directory: sites -> default -> files -> publications publications -> Table of Content forward introduction publications -> Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center for Wireless Technologies Georgia Institute of Technology publications -> Housing Counseling Research in Chicago publications -> Communicating with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Audiences publications -> New Brunswick Info Sheet on First Nations Child Welfare publications -> Paap’s Electronic Newsletter 14 November 2008 Volume 11 Number 22 towards ‘smart’ subsidies in agriculture: lessons from recent experience in malawi publications -> Information support of pedagogical process for the children experiencing difficulties with acquisition of preschool educational programs publications -> Asus’ ZenFone ar has Google’s augmentted and virtual reality baked in — but not combined publications -> School Readiness and Early Grade Success Consultation Memo Atlanta, ga Download 6.66 Mb. Share with your friends:
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