Theology beacon dictionary of theology

Man was created not only as an individual (ish—man) but also as a racial being (adam — mankind). All the races of mankind have de­scended from a common parentage (Gen. 3:20; Acts 17:26). Moreover, the primitive state of man was not one of barbarism, but one of maturity and perfection (cf. Wiley, CT, 2:21). Adam (the man) walked in fellowship and holy harmony with God and intuitively read off the nature of each animal, so giving each a name appropriate to its characteristics (Gen. 2.T9-20; cf. 1:31).

The Genesis account also tells of God's elabo­ration of the race into two sexes by the creation of Eve from Adam's side-chamber (tsela, Gen. 2:18, 22, 24), so that mankind includes both as one flesh. Thereafter, the basic unit within the race is a community of father-mother-child in so­cietal relationships. So sex is God's invention, for He made mankind both man and woman (the "man with a womb"), both male (ish) and female (ishah); but since the Fall, nothing about mankind has been more perverted than sex.

See human nature, divine image, body, soul. di­chotomy, trichotomy sexuality.

For Further Reading: Curtis, The Christian Faith, 7-93; Laidlaw, The Bible Doctrine of Man; Paul Meehl et al., What Then Is Man?; Wiley, CT, 2:7-50.

Ross E. Price

For Paul the man of sin will be more than a preeminently godless individual; in him human­ity in its hostile alienation from God will come to a definitive, eschatological revelation. He will be the final counterpart of Christ. Like Christ, he will have his "revelation" (2 Thess. 2:3, 6, 8) and "parousia" (v. 9). His coming will be marked by all manner of powers, signs, and wonders, by which he will deceive an unbelieving humanity (w. 9-11). He will proclaim himself to be God and demand the worship of the world (v. 4). He will be the culmination of that satanically in­spired hostility to God and to Christ which has been operative throughout history (w. 7, 9).

See tribulation, rapture, second coming of christ.

For Further Reading: Morris, The First and Second

Founded by Manes, Mani, or Manichaeus (c. a.d. 216-76), this religion was based primarily in Babylonia and Persia, but broad missionary ac­tivity of Manichaeus and his followers pushed the religion into India, China, Tibet, the Roman Empire, and Egypt. Manichaeism is still alive in small measure in the 20th century both as a re­sult of the conscious efforts of a few disciples and in bits and pieces of views of generally or­thodox Christians.

Manichaeism's principal contention is for an ultimate dualism: light vs. darkness; good vs. evil; spiritual world vs. material world. The world itself is the product of a complicated strug­gle between light and darkness. And while matter per se is evil, certain activities and mate­rial entities are more an expression of darkness/ evil than others. For example, morality is nega­tively regarded as abstention from meat, wine,



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and sexual contact. Luminous foods (melons, fruits) must be distinguished from dark foods (wine, meat). The very purpose of procreation is the enslavement of particles of light (and thus involves the shrouding of light in the darkness of matter).

Ambassadors of light are especially Buddha, Zoroaster, and Jesus. But the final seal of all reve­lation is Mani.

Those who accept Manichaean dualism will ultimately be liberated into the Kingdom of Light (either immediately if among the elect or through transmigration into an elect). Those who reject this will be reincarnated as beasts and finally end in hell.

During the Middle Ages there was a tendency to apply the term Manichaean to any heresy. Catholics called the Reformers Manichaean after this fashion. This led to studies which exposed the extra-Christian sources of this approach. A whole new era of understanding of Manichaeism has arrived through the great discoveries of texts in the 20th century.

See DUALISM, GNOSTICISM, MEDITATION. For Further Reading: Encyclopedia Americana; Heick, A History of Christian Thought, 2:132 ff.

R. Duane Thompson

For Further Reading: Heick, A History of Christian Thought, 1:76-78. ~ J. kenneth grider

Orthodox groups and Roman Catholics have encouraged the adoration of Mary. Centuries of tradition have been formalized into dogma by Roman Catholic popes concerning her place. On December 8, 1854, Pope Pius IX declared that Mary had been preserved from original sin from the earliest moment of her life (immaculate con­ception). On November 1, 1950, Pope Pius XII gave formal voice to the long-held view that

Mary was a virgin throughout her lifetime (per­petual virginity). He also affirmed that she had been received into heaven without having tasted death (bodily assumption). Along with her cen­turies-old title "Mother of God," Mary was offi­cially declared to be "Mother of the Church" by Pope Paul VI, on November 21, 1964.

Shrines have been built to honor Mary. Match­less paintings and beautifully sculptured madon­nas have been created to aid the worshipper in directing his prayers to and through her. She is considered to be a mediator between the pen­itent and Christ. Songs have been sung, poems have been written, candles have been lit in her honor. Mariolatry goes far beyond the proper biblical appreciation for the lowly "handmaid of the Lord" (Luke 1:38).

See IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, MOTHER OF GOD.
IDOL (IDOLATRY). RONALD E. WILSON

MARRIAGE. Marriage is the institution whereby a man and a woman are joined together in the legal relationship of husband and wife. It was es­tablished by God when He created the first hu­man pair (Gen. 2:20-24), and is the foundation on which the family and society are built.

While procreation is a purpose of marriage (Gen. 1:27-28; 9:7), that is but one of its func­tions. Apart from each other man and woman are incomplete. Marriage gives each a sense of belonging and of fulfilment, and is a citadel of mutual love and concern. But these goals can be reached on the highest level only as the man and woman are united in Christ.

God intended marriage to be a lifelong rela­tionship. Vows and/or agreements made in its inception are done before God and therefore are most sacred (Matt. 19:6). A successful marriage requires a mutual, ongoing attitude of unselfish concern. It must be built on the principles of sub­mission and love stated in Eph. 5:21-22, 28-30. As the couple submits to God, He supplies graces that enrich and cement together the marriage re­lationship.

The biblical principle of submission of the wife to her husband does not contradict another prin­ciple stating the equal dignity of the sexes (Gal. 3:28; 1 Cor. 7:4; 11:11-12). The wife's submis­sion, like the submission of Christ to the Father, of citizens to rulers, and of employees to employ­ers, is functional and does not imply inferiority. Because God ordained a hierarchy of responsibil­ity, He also appointed a hierarchy of authority in keeping with the order in which the human gen­ders were created. The dignity of wives is seen also in the fact that the command to submit is

Marriage is only for this life (Matt. 22:30). But its intimacy, its love, its beauty, its mutual joy and concern make it a fitting symbol of the eternal union between Christ and the Church (Eph. 5:21-32; Rev. 19:7).

See FAMILY, CHILD (CHILDREN), INSTITUTIONS OF CHRISTIANITY, POLYGAMY SEXUALITY.

For Further Reading: Bailey, The Mystery of Love and Marriage; Bowman, A Christian Interpretation of Mar­riage; Granberg, "Marriage," Baker's DT.

W. Ralph Thompson

Although the word martus does not appear in the Septuagint (LXX), the spirit of the martyr is evident in many parts of the OT from Abel (Gen. 4:10) onward. Judaism held in high esteem those whose suffering and death were within the framework of the Pharisaic ideal of piety. For them suffering and death for the law were con­sidered to be unexcelled works of piety.

In the NT it is Stephen who became known as the first Christian martyr. Paul told it in one sim­ple statement. "When the blood of Stephen thy witness [martus] was shed I stood by" (Acts 22:20, neb). The whole story of Stephen makes it clear that he was not called a witness because he died. Rather he died because he like Abel was a witness, and he engaged in fervent evangelistic activity.

The history of the martyrs in the Christian Church contains some basic elements. There is always evident the conflict with Satan and/or his agents. They all share in the imitation and extension of the sufferings of Christ (cf. Paul, in Rom. 8:17). In some unique if not mysterious way they found His support in the time of perse­cution and/or death even to the point that they sensed an unusual infilling of power and joy.

These common denominators go back to ideas and ideals set forth in the NT (Matt. 5:11 ff; 10:17 ff; 16:24 ff; Acts 5:41; Rom. 5:3 ff).

To be a valid witness one must stake every­thing, including his life, on the veracity of the truth he espouses and lives out. Jesus' answer to Pilate's question, "What is truth?" was what He did—the Cross. He had just said, "My task is to bear witness [martus] to the truth" (John 18:37, neb).

See TESTIMONY (WITNESS), CONSECRATE (CONSE­CRATION).

For Further Reading: Foxe, Book of Martyrs; Sangster, The Pure in Heart, 62 ff, 107-8.

Joseph H. Mayfield

MARXISM. Marxism, the ideological basis of Communism, purports to explain everything of importance in history and society. As a social and political movement, it commands the passionate allegiance of millions. As social philosophy, it is also termed dialectical materialism and economic determinism.

Karl Marx (1818-83), a brilliant, highly edu­cated German radical, produced in 1848, along with Friedrich Engels, the 1,500-word Communist Manifesto, which sums up Marxist ideology. En-gels, son of a wealthy Englishman, became Marx's lifetime protege and sponsor. Twice ex­pelled from Germany, Marx lived first in Paris, and from 1849 to his death, in London. His four-volume work, Das Kapital (Capital), is the sacred scriptures of Marxism.

Marx borrowed Hegel's dialectical explanation of history, applying it, however, not to spiritual, but to material factors. Thus Marxism is materi­alistic, deterministic, and atheistic. It is congenial to the theory of evolution applied to cultural matters.

Marx theorized that all cultural change is de­termined by the mode of economic production. The ultimate social malady is economic. Those who own the means of production (the class called the bourgeoisie) take from those who have only labor to sell (the class called the proletariat) the surplus value of their labor, creating class en­mity and struggle. This self-produced dialectic is the inevitable source of new social movements. The state, itself the product of economic forces, must protect the capitalist system, a fact which makes violent revolution necessary. After revolu­tion, the temporary "dictatorship of the pro­letariat" will yield to "economic democracy," a classless society in which the people control the means of production. The state will "wither away." Religion, which is the "opiate of the peo­ple," will be eradicated. The final ideal will be: "From each according to his ability, to each ac­cording to his need."

Lenin altered "inevitable progress" to "volun­tarism." Under Stalin Communism became infal­lible state teaching accompanied by secret police and the horror of political purges of all dissi­dent ideas and persons. The inevitability of war became dogma. Various revolutions have pro­duced industrial serfdoms and dictatorships of



the Communist Party. The only acknowledged "right" is that which produces desired changes.

There is a popular existential form of Marxism, a philosophy of liberation, based on a theory of human alienation under capitalism, but it is scarcely compatible with the central dogma of Marx.

In spite of the failure of Marxist theories the mythology persists, a tribute to its ambiguous appeal to democratic ideals, and to the proud search for a humanistic salvation.

See CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM, LIBERATION THEOLOGY.

In the early centuries, Origen and others viewed the eucharistic elements as symbols. Others, such as Cyril of Jerusalem, began to teach vaguely that there is some kind of mystical change in the elements. Gradually, the "mystical change" view won out. This, especially in 851 when Paschasius Radbertus wrote a treatise on the Lord's Supper taking the view later called transubstantiation: that the substance of the ele­ments becomes transformed into Christ's body and blood.

As Protestants view the matter, Christ does not need to be resacrificed. Christ is not physically present in the Lord's Supper but is present spiri­tually. They also understand that the Supper is a sacramental means of grace for the communicant only; not for others, in purgatory, as Catholics teach.

See CATHOLICISM (ROMAN), HOLY COMMUNION. For Further Reading: Boettner, Roman Catholicism, 168 ff; Lebbe, The Mass; Sheppard, The Mass in the West.

J. Kenneth Grider

MATERIALISM. Materialism is one of the oldest attempts to explain systematically the nature of existence. From early Greek philosophers (Tha­les, Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Democritus) to Thomas Hobbes in the 17th century and Marx in the 19th, materialism has had an appeal. Accord­ing to this view, all things, including the func­tioning of the mind and the flow of history, depend upon matter and physical processes. Ma­terialism is not simply the acknowledgment that matter exists, but the doctrine that matter is all there is. Materialism, as such, has no place for God or any kind of transcendent, spiritual, non-material reality. Mind is epiphenomenal.

The strongest argument for metaphysical ma­terialism arises out of the fact that sense-percep­tion is the basis for all knowledge. Nerves, brain, the physical senses—all are material. However, materialism does not adequately explain how new ideas arise out of sense data. Even our per­ception of matter is incomplete. Recent study of subatomic particles suggests that energy or radi­ation may come nearer explaining matter. The first act of God in creation ("Let there be light") supports this view (see also Heb. 11:3, Nrv).

Gnosticism viewed all matter as evil and at­tempted to produce the spiritual man by impart­ing a special knowledge. Some Gnostics taught that for one who possessed this knowledge, in­dulgence of the flesh could not affect the spirit. Others emphasized escape from the material world through asceticism.

However, Christianity rejects both views. It distinguishes between materialism and materi­ality (the state or quality of being material). Ma­terial things are part of God's "good" creation to be received with thanksgiving (Gen. 1:31; 1 Tim. 4:3-4). The body is God's temple and will be res­urrected in the last day. What God created, in­habits, redeems, and purposes to resurrect, is not to be despised or misused (1 Cor. 6:18-19; 2 Cor. 6:16; 1 Corinthians 15). The Christian rejoices in material things as gifts from God (2 Cor. 6:10; 1 Tim. 6:19) not as sin, but as responsibility. He is a steward to manage his Master's resources for his Master's pleasure (Matt. 25:14-30).

The Christian is warned of the peril of materi­alism—of being ruled by lust for the world (Matt. 6:24; 13:22; 1 John 2:15-17). Not setting his heart on riches (Ps. 62:10; 1 Tim. 6:9; Luke 12:16-21), he is to help the needy (vv. 33-34; Acts 20:35; 1

331

In Roman Catholic tradition the sacrament takes primacy over the Word as the means of grace. Through the sacrament the virtue of the passion of Christ is mediated to the recipient. A sacrament functions ex opere operato, that is, by virtue of a power within the sacrament itself.

The Protestant Reformation insisted upon re­versing the primacy of sacrament to Word. Through the hearing of the Word, by the oper­ation of the Holy Spirit, faith is born and thus the benefits of the passion of Christ are mediated. Only inasmuch as a sacrament is joined to the faith of the recipient can it become a means of grace. The Word is primary as the means of grace.

Emphasis upon the Word as the means of grace in Protestantism legitimizes a broader con­cept of means of grace. The Word is heard in preaching primarily. But it may come to human beings in the home and in the school, through conversation and through literature.

Thus we are led full circle to the broader defi­nition of the means of grace which include prayer, meditation, fellowship, devotional read­ing, corporate worship, preaching, and the sacra­ments.

One of the most vigorous accents in the teach­ing of John Wesley was his insistence on observ­ing all available means of grace. The seeker (for either pardon or perfect love) was instructed to be faithful therein until faith came; those having been justified and sanctified wholly were ex­horted to use all regular aids in order to maintain and grow in grace. Wesley refused to be in­timidated by those detractors (including the Mo­ravians with their antinomian tendencies) who categorized all such duties as works-righteous­ness, incompatible with evangelical faith.

See GRACE, WORSHIP, PRAYER, SACRAMENTS, PREACHING.

For Further Reading: Watson, comp., The Message of the Wesleys, 157 ff; Wiley, CT, 2:460.

Daniel N. Berg

MEDIATION, MEDIATOR. The infinite distance which separates God and fallen humanity re­quires mediation if reconciliation is to be real­ized. Mediation is, theologically defined, the means by which the distance created by sin is bridged, and God and man are reconciled. The heart of the matter is expressed well in 1 Tim. 2:5-6fl: "For there is one God, and one mediator also between God and men, the man Christ Jesus, who gave Himself as a ransom for all"

(nasb).

In the Old Testament. The terms mediation and mediator do not appear in the OT, but the con­cepts are worked out in various ways. The prin­ciple is embodied in Israel's prophet, priest, and theocratic king. The prophet was God's represen­tative to men; the priest was man's representative to God; and the theocratic king was the anointed representative of Israel's divine Ruler.

Among human mediators in the OT, however, foremost was Moses (cf. Exod. 32:30-32; Num. 12:6-8; Gal. 3:19-20; Heb. 3:2-5), the instrument through whom the covenant was established at Sinai (cf. Exod. 19:3-8; 24:3-8; Acts 7:37-39). Consequently, Jesus, Mediator of the new cov­enant, is compared and contrasted with Moses.

The supreme eschatological figure of mediator is the Servant of Yahweh who suffers vicariously as an atonement for the people's sins (Isaiah 53). This figure is perfectly fulfilled in the death of Christ.

In the New Testament. The word "mediator," Greek mesites, occurs six times in the NT (Gal. 3:19-20—of Moses; 1 Tim. 2:5; Heb. 8:6; 9:15; 12:24—of Christ). Oepke questions whether we are justified in regarding Jesus as "the fulfilment of the mediator concept" in view of so few ex­plicit references (Oepke, "mesites," Kittel, 4:624). Such skepticism is ill-founded. If the term is rare, the concept is not. All OT figures of mediation intersect in Christ. Only Christ truly brings God and man together. In this sense there is "one me­diator" (1 Tim. 2:5). The OT figures were, at best, shadows of the archetypal realities fulfilled in Christ.

The NT presents both the cosmic and redemp­tive aspects of Christ's mediation. The principal passages bearing on Christ's cosmic mediation are highly significant for Christology (e.g., 1 Cor. 8:6; Col. 1:15-17; Heb. 1:2-3; John 1:1-5). It is the redemptive aspect of Christ's mediation, how­ever, that is most fully presented (e.g., Matt. 11:27-28; 26:26-28; Mark 8:38; 14:22-24; Luke 9:11-27; 22:19-20; John 14:6; Acts 4:12; Eph. 1:10-21; 2:13-18; Col. 1:20; 1 John 2:1-2). The entire Epistle to the Hebrews focuses on Jesus' work as the redemptive Mediator.

Both the Godward and manward sides of Christ's redemptive mediation are emphasized. Since He is the Word become flesh (cf. John 1:14), "the exact representation of His [God's] na­ture" (Heb. 1:3), Christ is uniquely qualified to represent God to men. Since Jesus can sym­pathize with our weaknesses, having been tempted as are we, yet without sinning (4:15), He is uniquely qualified to represent men to God. Jesus' death provides the objective ground for our forgiveness and acceptance with God; His



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resurrection and exaltation provide the basis for His ongoing mediatorial intercession.

See ADVOCATE, PRIEST (PRIESTHOOD), CHRIST, ES­TATES OF CHRIST.

For Further Reading: Becker, "mesites," NIDB,
1:372-76; Blackman, "Mediator, Mediation," IDB,
3:320-31; Morris, The Apostolic Preaching of the
Cross; Murray, "Mediator," NBD, 802-4; Oepke, "mes-
ites," Kittel, 4:598-624. J. wesley adams

MEDITATION. This, generally, is an act in which one thinks carefully in search of or consideration of any truth. Among Christians it is a form of mental prayer or devout reflection involving the memory, the imagination, the emotions, and the intellect, aimed toward spiritual insight and growth. Meditation has always been practiced in the church, and various techniques have been proposed to make it more effective.

As the word meditation is used today, it often refers to Transcendental Meditation, a popular movement headed by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, who left India in 1958 to begin a tour of the West. During a brief training period each medita­tor is given a secret mantra (a Sanskrit word, sim­ply a meaningless sound to the meditator) which is to be repeated during meditation whenever the meditator's mind wanders. The goal of the medi­tator is unity with the god who is, however, not the personal God of Christianity; and the de­votee reaches this by the repetition of his mantra for 20 minutes each morning and evening. He wishes to go beyond all thought to a state of pure awareness. Transcendental Meditation is a ver­sion of Hinduism, and advanced meditators find themselves adopting a Hindu philosophy.

Christians are called to a different kind of meditation. They are to meditate on God and His Word day and night so that they will act accord­ing to what is in it (Josh. 1:8; Ps. 1:2; 63:6; 119:48). They are also to meditate on God's works (77:12; 143:5). Finally, they are to meditate on true, honest, just, pure, and lovely things which will elevate their thinking (1 Tim. 4:15; Phil. 4:8). Such meditation will be a delight (Ps. 1:2; 104:34). A Christian meditator is not to go beyond all thought to lose his individuality in pure being, but to find his identity as a child of God.

See TRANSCENDENTAL MEDITATION, DEVOTE (DE­VOTION), PRAYER.

For Further Reading: Haddon and Hamilton, TM Wants You! Lewis, What Everyone Should Know About Transcendental Meditation; Pipkin, Christian Meditation.

Ronald L. Koteskey

MEEKNESS. Meekness is that poise and self­lessness in those who are truly strong which frees them from the compulsion to prove their strength.

Moses, demonstrating massive strength in re­serve and unrestricted concern for the people un­der his care, is an enfleshment of meekness in the OT (Num. 12:3). The perspective which is typified by Moses is in the frame of reference of belief in the God of the covenant who will judge and recompense as well as justify the meek in spirit.

Jesus is the enfleshment of meekness in the NT. He is completely free of motives of self-service. He is confident, sufficient, and thereby free to serve people without using them. He is enough (Matt. 11:29). He is strong enough for any task in the fulfillment of the will of the Fa­ther, yet is not compelled to exercise undue force to prove it.

Historically, the concept has been distorted by non-Christian mind-sets which, by their lim­itations, are incapable of handling strength with­out subjugating the weak. Consequently, the grand word "meekness" as a Christlike quality (and the eighth of the nine fruits of the Spirit in Gal. 5:22-23), has been changed to denote a weak and passive characteristic.

Meekness resembles humility and gentleness, while it also includes the active qualities of cour­age and confidence in one's resources. It is the opposite of the pride and self-assertion which re­sults from lack of self-identity as a Christian. It connotes a healing and restorative quality as it deals with other people (Gal. 6:1).

Meekness is in contrast to the characteristics of the carnal nature, since self-centered man cannot deal with others unselfishly. Meekness is con­fused with weakness by the one who is not cleansed of the spirit of pride and self-elevation.

In Christian terminology, then, meekness is an essential Christian virtue and an evidence of the Spirit-filled and Spirit-directed life. It demon­strates the confidence and resiliency which result from unreserved trust in and an unconditional obedience to God in Christ Jesus.

See SEVEN CARDINAL VIRTUES, HUMILITY, CHRIST­LIKENESS, MIND OF CHRIST, GENTLENESS.

For Further Reading: Kittel, 6:645-51; Nave's Topical
Bible, 830-32. GORDON WETMORE

MELCHIZEDEK. Melchizedek, "righteousness is my king," or "king of righteousness," is men­tioned in Gen. 14:18-20; Ps. 110:4; and in Heb. 5:6-11; 6:20—7:28. In Gen. 14:18-20 Abram, returning from the



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defeat of the four kings, is met by Melchizedek, "king of Salem" and "priest of God Most High" (niv). Melchizedek brought out bread and wine, presumably to refresh Abram. Then he blessed Abram by God Most High, blessed God Most High for giving Abram the victory, and, although a foreigner, received tithes from Abram. Salem is usually thought to be Jerusalem (Ps. 76:2), and Melchizedek, a Canaanite king. "God Most High" was a title for God among Canaanites and Phoenicians. Nevertheless, the Bible identifies the God of Abraham with the God of Mel­chizedek.

In Ps. 110:4 the Lord, with an oath, proclaims the Davidic king a "priest for ever after the order of Melchizedek." Jesus applied Ps. 110:1 to him­self (Mark 12:35 ff), and in this He was followed by much of the NT. Only in Hebrews is Ps. 110:4 applied to Jesus.

In Heb. 6:20—7:28, Gen. 14:18-20 is used to aid in the application of Ps. 110:4 to Christ. Mel­chizedek is superior to Levi, as proven by the fact that Levi's father Abraham paid tithes to Mel­chizedek and also by the fact that Melchizedek "lives" (Heb. 7:1-10). Therefore Jesus, the "priest ... after the order of Melchisedec," the priest "af­ter the power of an endless life," replaces the merely typical Aaronic/Levitical priesthood (vv. 11-25). This new Priest is able to save completely (v. 25).

Most interpreters understand v. 3 to mean that Melchizedek's lack of genealogy made him a symbol of the eternal priesthood of Christ. A few interpreters have held that the verse describes Melchizedek as an eternal being, a preincarnate manifestation of Christ or a theophany similar to the appearances of the Angel of the Lord in other parts of Genesis. The sudden appearance and disappearance of Melchizedek in Genesis 14 is not altogether uncongenial to this interpretation.

Philo allegorized Melchizedek as "divine rea­son" in man. Josephus refers to him as the first priest, the founder of the Temple at Jerusalem. The rabbis sometimes identified him with Shem, to avoid Abram's giving tithes to a foreigner. The Dead Sea Scroll HQMelch depicts Melchizedek as the angel who in the last days will deliver God's chosen people and bring judgment on the wicked. This scroll has little apparent rela­tionship to Hebrews 7.

See ABRAHAM, HIGH PRIESTHOOD OF CHRIST.

For Further Reading: Waltke, ZPEB, 4:177-78; Horton, The Melchizedek Tradition; Demarest, The Evangelical Quarterly (July, 1977), 141-62.

Gareth Lee Cockerill

MEMORIAL THEORY. See Holy Communion.

MERCY. In the deepest sense, mercy is an attri­bute of God given to His creation. For this reason we find the verb "to be merciful" attributed to God and man in both the OT and NT. Although the word may be translated "have compassion," there is a significant theological difference car­ried by the term "mercy," especially when re­ferring to God's mercy to man.

The OT's main word for "mercy" denotes a combination of righteousness and love. Many Bi­ble scholars are inclined to translate the word as "steadfast love," implying that God has entered into a covenant with His people. The result of this relationship is a readiness on God's part to relieve the oppressed and pardon the guilty. It is in the context of relief and pardon that God's righteous love becomes mercy. Mercy is compas­sion in action. Although guilty and deserving no mitigation, God's mercy is extended to man; and when accepted, it results in pardon. Only as man accepts the steadfast love of God revealed in the Cross can he receive mercy and experience par­don from sin.

See SUPPLICATION, JUSTICE, GRACE.

For Further Reading: HDB, 644: JDB, 3:352-54.

W. Stephen Gunter

MERCY SEAT. From the biblical languages this means "propitiation" or "place or means of atonement." It was an important object of the Tabernacle preempted and fulfilled by Jesus, Lord and Savior.

In the Pentateuch the mercy seat was a base of fine gold, about four feet long and two and one-half feet wide (Exod. 25:17; 37:6), with a cherub at each end. The cherubim faced each other with outstretched wings, touching each other at the midpoint above (25:18-20; 37:7-9). It fit on top of the ark of the covenant, which was placed be­yond the veil inside the holy of holies (Exod. 26:34; 30:6). Within the inner sanctum God spoke to Moses concerning His people Israel (Num. 7:89; cf. Exod. 25:21-22). To the mercy seat the high priest applied atoning blood on the annual Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:2, 13-15).

From archaeology it is known that the Is­raelites reflected their cultural setting in the use of cherubim. However, they rejected their cul­tural setting by prohibiting an image of their God, Yahweh, on the cherubim, in keeping with the second commandment. Further, the mercy seat, where God abode in His invisible presence, was sprinkled with atoning blood on the annual



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Day of Atonement and therefore was the place and means whereby God in mercy forgave sin among the people of Israel.

In the NT the passing reference to "mercy seat" in the Epistle to the Hebrews (9:5) suggests that it and other older covenant features have been superseded and fulfilled in Jesus Christ.

See mosaic law, sacrifice, ark of the cov­enant day of atonement. blood, holy of holies, temple. veil.

For Further Reading: IDB, 1:354; Wright, Biblical Ar-

chaeology, 98-119, 136-40; Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia,
1104,1416. Harvey E. Finley
MERIT. See work (works).

MESSIAH. The word "Messiah" is derived from the Hebrew word meshiach and means "anointed" or "the anointed"; its Greek form is Christos, and its English equivalent is "Christ." "On the early pages of the New Testament, 'Christos' occurs with the definite article, 'the Christ' (e.g., Matt. 16:16; 27:22; John 4:29; 1 John 2:22; 5:1). It was only later that 'Christ' came to function as a name rather than as a title" (GMS, 183).

In the OT, when applied to persons, the term indicates induction into a sacred office. It is "ap­plied exceptionally to prophets, occasionally to the chief priests and most commonly to the king of Israel, 'the Messiah of Yahweh'" (Bruce, New Testament History, 122). For example, Saul is des­ignated "the Meshiach of Yahweh," the anointed of the Lord (1 Sam. 24:6). In general usage kings, high priests, the Jewish people as a whole, even non-Jewish Cyrus, the king of Persia (since he was used by God to accomplish the divine pur­pose) were spoken of as "the anointed of the Lord" (Exod. 29:7; Isa. 45:1; 61:1; Psalms 2; 28:8).

In the centuries following the destruction of Judea (586 b.c.), the Jews found their hopes cen­tering upon an early restoration of their indepen­dence and the reestablishing of the monarchy by a descendant of David, whose throne would be "forever" (2 Sam. 7:16; Ps. 89:29). Haggai and Zechariah saw this future king who would be Meshiach Yahweh (Zech. 3:8; 6:12-13; 9:9-16; 12:8; 14:3-4).

Beside this national hope or superimposed upon it was the slowly emerging vision of "the Day of the Lord," a time of moral and spiritual meaning, when sin would be punished, whether Israel's or others', and when universal righteous­ness and peace would reign over all men, with Jerusalem, "the joy of the whole earth," as the center of it all. This universal dimension in OT "messiahship," while sometimes obscured by na­tionalism, is consistent with Jewish monotheism. "It flashes through the darkness in Isaiah in the four Servant songs (42:1-7; 49:1-7; 50:4-11; 52:13—53:12), where is seen the Servant of Yah­weh whose mission is the spread of the knowl­edge of the true God to the ends of the earth ... not by imposing his will on others but by uncom­plaining endurance of contempt, injustice, suf­fering and death" (Bruce, New Testament History, 128). But it comes to its true focal point and ful­fillment in the words "the anointed Lord" (Chris­tos Kyrios), used so significantly in the angelic annunciation to the shepherds in Bethlehem (Luke 2:11).

All Bible scholars recognize the duality, if not multiplicity, of Jewish "messiah" concepts at the time of Christ. Theologically liberal Jewish and Christian theologians are prone to emphasize the nationalistic concepts and to minimize or deny the universal and spiritual mission of Christ. This point of view is expressed by Rabbi Silver and M. S. Eslin in ER, 485 ff. An opposite, though much less serious, error is found in some conservative eschatology when historical substance is largely ignored or allegorized into prophetic inter­pretation.

Sound biblical exegesis exposes the unity of the Bible in progressive revelation, lays bare the realities of God's redemptive work with a way­ward Israel, and then lets shine forth the glories of the kingdom of God through our Lord Jesus Christ, the Messiah.

See christ, son of man, promises (davidic), day of the lord, progressive revelation. For Further Reading: gms, 183-93, 322-28.

John E. Riley

METAPHYSICS. The term metaphysics refers to that branch of philosophy which deals with the nature of what is called "ultimate reality" or Be­ing as such. Ontology is sometimes used as a syn­onym for metaphysics. The term originated curiously from a reference to the place occupied on Aristotle's bookshelf by his volume on "first principles"—that is "after" (meia) the "physics" (physica)!

Metaphysics, as a subject of human thought, originated with the Greek thinkers of the sixth century b.c. who were concerned about the na­ture of the stuff out of which everything else is made: the basic principle of the universe. In the two and one-half millennia since then, scores, perhaps hundreds, of views have been formu­lated in answer to this question.

Metaphysics, through the centuries, has



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METEMPSYCHOSIS—METHODISM


played an important role in Christian theology by providing to theologians a ready-made ve­hicle for interpreting Christian thought to a non-Christian world—a world which already understands the particular metaphysical view se­lected.

The employment of metaphysical thought in this task has not been universally accepted by the church. During the patristic period there was opposition to all pagan thought in the writings of Tertullian, who asked, "What has Athens to do with Jerusalem?" Clement of Alexandria, how­ever, considered philosophy to be an excellent preparation for the knowledge of God. In the writings of Augustine, bishop of Hippo, it is pos­sible to see the influence of Plotinus, whose metaphysics asserted a single, all-inclusive deity.

During the early Middle Ages, a strong Pla­tonic influence which stressed the role of eternal forms (Ideas) may be seen in the theology of An­selm of Canterbury. In the later Middle Ages, in the theology of Thomas Aquinas, we find great use of the metaphysics of Aristotle—a view which sees the entire universe as seeking to real­ize Pure Form, the First Cause, the completely transcendent God.

Since the Reformation, metaphysics has not played as dominant a role in Christian theology as before, although liberal Protestantism in the 19th and 20th centuries derived much help from idealistic metaphysics (primacy of "mind" as ulti­mate reality). The recent decline of metaphysics within philosophical circles has influenced much contemporary theology: the existentialism of Soren Kierkegaard and Paul Tillich, neoortho­doxy, and radical theology.

See NATURAL THEOLOGY, ONTOLOGICAL ARGUMENT PERSONALISM, ONTOLOGY.

For Further Reading: Since most books on meta­physics contain the author's

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