Theology beacon dictionary of theology
particular metaphysical view, the reader who desires to understand the field in a
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- Living Issues in Philosophy, 6th ed. (1974). Almost any other such text would do, however. ALVIN HAROLD KAUFFMAN METEMPSYCHOSIS. See
- For Further Reading: Wilcox, Be Ye Holy; Rose, A The- ology of Christian Experience; Turner, The Vision Which Transforms.
- For Further Reading: Clouse, ed., The Meaning of the Millennium; Erickson, Contemporary Options in Eschatology; Lawson
- Crucial Questions About the Kingdom of God. ROB L. STAPLES MIND.
- MAN, HUMAN NATURE, HEART, SOUL, SPIRIT.
- CLERGY, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, DISCIPLING, SERVANT, SERVICE. For Further Reading: Wiley, CT, 3
- SUPERNATURAL (SUPERNATURALISM). HEAL (HEALING), CREDENTIALS OF SCRIPTURE, SIGN. For Further Reading: HDNT, 2:186-89; Wiley, CT
| particular metaphysical view, the reader who desires to understand the field in a general way would be advised to consult a recent introduction to philosophy and to read the chapters or section which deal with the topic of metaphysics. One such popular book is Titus and Smith, Living Issues in Philosophy, 6th ed. (1974). Almost any other such text would do, however. ALVIN HAROLD KAUFFMAN
METEMPSYCHOSIS. See reincarnation. METHODISM. John Wesley writes definitively of the people called Methodists. In November, 1729, four young men of Oxford—John Wesley, Charles Wesley, Mr. Morgan, and Mr. Kirkman— began to spend some evenings each week to read together, chiefly the Greek NT. Others joined them later. "The exact regularity of their lives, as well as studies, occasioned a young gentleman of Christ Church to say, 'Here is a new set of Methodists sprung up,' alluding to some ancient physicians who were so called (because they taught that almost all diseases might be cured by a specific method of diet and exercise). The name was new and quaint; so it took immediately, and the Methodists were known all over the University" (Works, 8:339, 348). These four Methodists were zealous members of the Church of England and also carefully followed the university statutes, "but they observed neither these nor anything else any further than they conceived it was bound upon them by their one book, the Bible." It was their "one desire to be downright Bible-Christians, taking the Bible, as interpreted by the primitive Church and their own, for their whole and sole rule." The charge laid against Methodists was that they were too scrupulous, too strict in following the teachings of the church and the statutes of the university. John Wesley's mother, Susanna, in a long letter to John explained that in rearing her children, all were "always put into a regular method of living, in such things as they were capable of, from their birth, as in dressing and undressing, changing their linen, etc." So first of all Methodism relates to a methodical practice of piety, in prayer and Bible reading, in visiting the sick, in helping the poor, in regularly attending the sacraments and services of the church. Methodism in the second place relates to various evangelistic methods in teaching and preaching Christ. In addition to evangelism by sermons, printed tracts, and books, John Wesley introduced itinerant evangelism. On foot and horseback Wesley took the gospel across England, Wales, Scotland, and into Ireland. Some heart-warmed laymen began to share their faith, and Wesley, following his mother's advice, refused to forbid them. In fact, had not John Wesley received and trained laymen to be itinerant soul winners, Methodism would not have captured England. But any method that honored Christ, John Wesley approved: street meetings, house-to-house meetings, field preaching, prison ministries, and others. Methodism is the gospel on the move. In the third place, Methodism may be known by its synergistic theology. One may observe these types of soteriological theology: (1) that of liturgy and sacrament; (2) that of creed and confession; (3) that of universalism; and (4) that of the divine-human encounter and cooperation. Methodism belongs to the fourth class. MIGHT—MIND 337
At issue are the mysteries of free will and of sovereign election. No one who reads the Bible will deny that man is responsible for his damnation, if he is lost, or that Christ alone is to be praised, if man is saved. To systematize a theology that accents one mystery at the expense of the other is neither necessary nor wise. Methodist theology includes both emphases, holding them as twin truths in tension, unwilling to reject one or the other, and willing to admit that the salvation of any one person is quite as mysterious, if not so unique, as the incarnation of God in Jesus Christ. Methodistic doctrine and Methodistic evangelism go together. The "persuasive techniques" of Methodistic evangelism—so strongly condemned by strict Calvinists—are logically the extension of the Methodist doctrine of free will, meaning a freedom to accept or reject the overtures of the gospel. In this respect Methodism is Pauline (2 Cor. 5:11; Phil. 2:12-13). Yet Methodism, when true to its moorings, is not Pelagian, but Augustinian, in its view of sin and human depravity. The ability of the sinner to decide for or against Christ is not traced to natural ability but to prevenient grace, as a universal and unconditional benefit of the Atonement. See wesleyanism, holiness movement (the), arminianism, augustinianism.
The idea is rooted in the Jewish expectation that the advent of the Messiah and the inauguration of the new age would bring about the final destruction of evil in the world order. God's chosen people would be restored to national integrity and righteousness and would live in holiness upon earth (cf. Daniel 7). This hope was taken over into Jewish-Christian apocalyptic, with the Church being identified by many as the new Israel, the restored people of the Messianic kingdom. Jesus used the prophetic imagery of the Messianic banquet (Luke 22:16; cf. Isa. 25:6-8; Luke 14:15) and spoke of His apostles as reigning in that day (Matt. 19:28). However, the most influential passage on millennial thought is Rev. 20:1-7, the only NT mention of a 1,000-year rule of Christ's resurrected saints. This passage is chiefly responsible for the belief that at the end of this age, but before the final bliss of heaven, there will be an intermediate period on earth (a millennial kingdom) in which Christ will reign with His saints. One's view of the millennium will be determined largely by one's answer to two basic questions. First, what is the relation between the millennium and the second coming of Christ? Different answers to that question are represented by premillennialism, postmillennialism, and to some extent amillennialism. Second, how does one interpret apocalyptic literature in general, and Rev. 20:1-7 in particular, especially the words "a [or the] thousand years"? In regard to the second question, some choose to interpret the words literally, expecting an earthly millennial kingdom of 1,000 years duration either following or preceding Christ's second coming. Others take the words symbolically, as expressing the believer's hope for the future and his faith in the ultimate triumph of God and His Christ, arguing that since apocalyptic literature is replete with symbolism, it is inconsistent to make an exception in the interpretation of Rev. 20:1-7. See eschatology, amillennialism, premillennialism, revelation (book of).
In the English Bible, "mind" is used to translate several Hebrew and Greek terms. While all of those terms differ somewhat in meaning, they all do include the idea of a person's capacity for rational thought. Among the important Hebrew words translated "mind" is lebh —usually translated "heart." It refers to a person's inmost center of personality which determines his outward acts. It is used especially, it would seem, with reference to recollection (Isa. 65:17) or purpose (Jer. 19:5). Nephesh—usually translated "soul"—is also sometimes translated "mind" to designate the deepest part of man, the self, the personal center of feelings, desires, and inclination.
In the NT we are admonished to love God with all the "mind" (Mark 12:30). The Greek term here is dianoia, referring to a person's power of reason, perception, imagination—his creativity. Paul declared, "I myself in my mind am a slave to God's law" (Rom. 7:25, niv). The Greek word here is nous, the seat of a person's reflective consciousness. In a later passage the apostle, using the same term, urges his readers to "be transformed by the renewing of your mind" (12:2, Niv). He seeks thereby to show that the transformed mind is a new, a different mind. It will provide new thought patterns, give a new orientation to life. No longer conformed to the world, the Christian no longer thinks like the world. His viewpoint is changed. In both of these passages Paul uses "mind" to mean a person's inner self which is able to reflect and purpose. It is the mind, as Paul uses the word, which enables a person to understand the revelation of God and respond to it. We see, then, that in the use of "mind" the apostle Paul stresses action rather than abstract thought. Paul also speaks of the carnal, sinful mind being hostile toward God (Rom. 8:7). The Greek term for "mind" in this instance is phronema, which refers to the habitual disposition of a person's intellectual faculty, his frame of mind, his bent. Literally it is the mind-set or bent toward the flesh. We see in the various contexts a variety of inferences expressed by the word "mind." But there is so much overlapping and interpenetration in the meanings that one is brought to see that in spite of the various faculties suggested, the Bible indicates man to be a holistic being. In fact, in a very real sense "mind" is often used in the Bible to mean the whole person, practically the same as soul (Rom. 1:28; 2 Tim. 3:8). See MAN, HUMAN NATURE, HEART, SOUL, SPIRIT. For Further Reading: IDB, 3:383-84; Purkiser, ed., Exploring Our Christian Faith, 218-20; GMS, 257-62, 334. Armor D. Peisker MIND OF CHRIST. This term is based on the KJV rendering of Phil. 2:5—"Let this mind be in you, which was also in Christ Jesus." Its significance is twofold: first, it demands an inquiry into the nature of Christ's mind; and second, it raises the problem of the possibility of that mind being in us, and the means by which this can occur. It should be noted at the outset that this verse is one of a cluster of passages which stress Christlikeness as the objective of God's grace, and make this inner conformity the central essence of Christian character. Our predestination, declares Rom. 8:29, is to be "conformed to the image of His Son" (nasb). While this conformation must await the resurrection for its full consummation, its essence must and may be experienced now, by crisis and process (Rom. 12:1-2; 2 Cor. 3:18; 1 John 3:2-3). Another example of this cluster of related texts is Gal. 4:19—"My children, with whom I am again in labor until Christ is formed in you" (nasb). The birth pangs once experienced by the apostle in bringing forth these spiritual children are now being experienced the second time. The purpose of this apostolic travail is for Christ himself, in His very character, to be reproduced in them. The Philippians verse carries a similar import. The exact meaning of the passage only partly turns on phroneite, "let this mind," or "be minded," but we must begin here. The verb phro-ned, "to be minded," is in v. 2, also 3:16; 4:2; and elsewhere. The exact sense in v. 5 is best expressed by "to be in a certain frame of mind" (Analytical Greek Lexicon). Earle believes that Lightfoot most aptly renders the clause: "Reflect in your minds the mind of Christ Jesus" (WMNT, 5:33). The substitution of "attitude" for "mind" in NASB and NIV is not an improvement, for it is putting a weak word for a strong one. "Mind-set" would be better, as it would more nearly express the deeply rooted disposition which is intended. Apart from the word phroneite, Paul makes perfectly clear in vv. 6-8 exactly what he means by the mind of Christ. It is a mind or disposition motivated by love for a lost world, a love demonstrated by emptying himself of His heavenly glory, and though truly God, becoming truly man; not only a man but a slave who is obedient unto death, even the death of the Cross. Such a mind is marked by humility, sacrifice, and total unselfishness. The relevance of this mind to the Philippians is seen in the fact that this exhortation or command is the culmination of vv. 1-4. They will succeed in relating themselves to each other as indicated in those verses if they are governed by the same frame of mind which prompted the Second Person of the Trinity to become our Redeemer. The possibility of Christians actually possessing such a mind-set is a staggering conception. But its difficulty is due primarily to the presence of its opposite, the carnal mind, with its disposition toward pride, self-serving, and self-willfulness. The radical displacement of one mind by another cannot occur simply by resolving, but only by a profound work of divine grace.
Vine provides an excellent NT study of terms for "minister": diakonos, a servant, attendant, deacon (Mark 10:43; Rom. 13:4; 1 Cor. 3:5; Eph. 6:21); leitourgos, a public servant (Heb. 8:2; 1:7; Rom. 13:6; 15:16; Phil. 2:25); huperetes, an under rower as distinguished from nautes, a seaman (Luke 4:20; Acts 13:5; 26:16; 1 Cor. 4:1); doulos, a bondservant or slave. Vine says, "Speaking broadly, diakonos views a servant in relation to his work; doulos, in relation to his master; huperetes, in relation to his superior; leitourgos, in relation to his public service" (Vine's ED, 3:72). The NT Church sets the parameters for the Christian ministry and describes the basic principles, though not the detailed structure, for church life and service. Although for Protestantism there is a universal priesthood of believers, there were, in the NT, nevertheless, some persons who were called of God and set apart or ordained for special service or ministry. Mark 3:14 and Luke 6:13 tell how the Lord called, chose, and sent out 12 "apostles." Then Luke goes on in 10:1 to record how He ordained 70 and sent them out. In Eph. 4:11-12 Paul enumerates the classes of service in the Church as given by Jesus: "And he gave some, apostles; and some, prophets; and some, evangelists; and some, pastors and teachers ... for the work of the ministry." Wiley believes that the bishops, elders, and deacons might perform any or all of these offices as needed and as appropriate. Furthermore, he distinguishes the first three as extraordinary and temporary, and the latter two as regular and permanent types of ministry. The elders and bishops are to be responsible for the spiritual care of the churches, while the deacons are to care for the management of its temporal affairs (Wiley, CT, 3:129 ff, cf. 118). Since NT times, ecclesiastical structure and the forms of Christian ministry have been in constant change. There have been churches from the almost formless house groups (no membership or organization), through the small congregational type, to the huge superchurches, to the massive hierarchy of the Roman Catholics. And there has been "ministry" from the humblest teaching of a few believers to the colorful cathedral ritual and the corporation-type multiple staffs of the largest congregations. In all the diversities of ministry there are a few fundamental principles to be kept in mind: the nature of the NT ministry; the command of our Lord to "go and make disciples of all nations" (Matt. 28:19, modern versions); the guidance and enablement of the Holy Spirit; the spiritual needs of humanity; and the building of the kingdom of God. Purkiser offers an outline of the NT ministry by noting some of its figures of speech: messenger, voice, fisherman, shepherd, witness, vessel, servant, laborer, builder, steward, athlete, ambassador, playing coach, prisoner of Jesus Christ, pattern, soldier, husbandman. He then notes some of the broader terms: disciple, apostle, elder, bishop, minister, preacher, prophet, evangelist, man of God, priest (New Testament Image of the Ministry, 30 ff). Perhaps the most significant note in all of this for all Christians, whether clergy or laity, is that each is to be a doulos, a love slave to Jesus the Lord. See CLERGY, CHURCH GOVERNMENT, DISCIPLING, SERVANT, SERVICE.
The question of miracles versus natural law has been debated for centuries. Does God ever interrupt the natural process? If He does, what does this mean in our understanding of God in His relationship to man? Some have attempted to explain the unknown in life by holding that a miracle is a phenomenon produced by a natural 340 MISSION, MISSIONS, MISSIOLOGY law which we do not yet understand. This interpretation of "miracle" eliminates the direct action of God in His world. Our Western view of nature and God is often at odds with biblical man's view. Biblical man saw God at work in the mundane and in the total structure of the universe. The rain and the heat were gifts of God. Thunder and lightning were evidences of His nearness. The processes of life—in the field, in the birth of cattle, and in the life of man—were in the direct will of the Lord. The Psalmist portrays a God who acts in the realm of nature: "When I consider thy heavens, the work of thy fingers, the moon and the stars, which thou hast ordained" (Ps. 8:3); and the prophet presents a God who is directing and sustaining the creation in a marvelous, miraculous manner: "[He] that bringeth out their host by number: he calleth them all by names by the greatness of his might" (Isa. 40:26). This speaks of God directly involved in the "miracle" not only of creation but of providence. The OT and NT also portray God as One who enters into the lives of human beings in special ways. This may involve the revelation of God's will through prayer, vision, or divine voice. This experience of the divine can transform, shape, command a person's total outlook on life. This happens often, not only in the study of the Book, but by the direct involvement of God in the experience of man. It can occur when one is in worship or when one is at work in the field or in the town. Amos experienced the "miracle" of God's revelation while pasturing the flock; Isaiah in the context of Temple worship; Hosea in the experience that shaped his view of God at work in restoring broken Israel. The Bible records instances of miracles of healing. This is particularly true in the case of the ministries of Elijah and Elisha, and of the ministry of Jesus. These miracles appear to be instantaneous and in most cases to result from the faith of the person in the power of God to act. The lame walk, the blind see, the paralyzed move, and in several cases the dead arise. Either these events are phenomena outside the processes of nature or in temporary suspension of nature. The biblical record is clear in its statement that these events did take place and at the express command of God. What is essential for us to understand is the purpose of God in the sustaining care and nurture of His people in the midst of a well-ordered universe. Faith in a God who loves is essential in the comprehending of miracles. God's purposes were not always completely comprehended by those who experienced the miraculous; but their faith was strengthened and their allegiance confirmed. See SUPERNATURAL (SUPERNATURALISM). HEAL (HEALING), CREDENTIALS OF SCRIPTURE, SIGN. For Further Reading: HDNT, 2:186-89; Wiley, CT, 1:149-56. Fred E. Young MISSION, MISSIONS, MISSIOLOGY. The terms for mission. The central meaning of all the biblical and theological terms for mission is "sending." It is the mission of God (missio Dei), who wants all people to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth (1 Tim. 2:4). He sends His Son into the world, the Son sends His disciples into the world, and both Father and Son send the Spirit to empower the Church in its mission of seeking the lost. Ideally, it may also be said that when the Church sends its workers, the Spirit is also sending them (Acts 13:1-4). The term mission is the broadest theological term and includes all that is involved in the salvation activities of the Trinity and the Church in the extension of the kingdom of God on earth (Verkuyl). The term missions as a singular noun refers commonly to the world missionary enterprise, though it may also relate to the theology and theory of mission. As a count noun that may be pluralized, mission/missions denotes the organizations involved in mission. There is a tendency, especially among ecumenicals, to prefer the use of mission to missions, though both terms are used concurrently. Missiology is the scholarly discipline which studies and delineates the whole field of mission and missions from the biblical, theological, and historical perspectives with additional relevant input from the social sciences. Mission in Scripture. The revelation of God as the Creator and Redeemer of all mankind first begins to come into clear focus in the covenant promise to Abraham that through him all the people on earth will be blessed (Gen. 12:3). Although this universal motif continues to be developed in the OT, particularly in the Psalms and prophetic books, Israel tended to understand its religion as an ethnic monopoly and failed to fulfill its God-intended mission of being a light to the nations (Isa. 42:6). So God had to create a New Israel, the universal society of the Church, which could serve as His missionary agent in the world. Christ initiated the mission first to the Jews through His own missional activity and in the sending of the Twelve and also the Seventy-two. Between His resurrection and ascension, Jesus made the mission explicitly universal in the MISSION OF CHRIST 341
terms of the Great Commission, which sent the whole Church to the whole world with the whole gospel. Acts and the Epistles record how the Early Church faithfully carried out their Lord's command and carried the gospel to the ends of the earth in their known world (Acts 1:8). One of the mysteries of NT interpretation is that while there were obviously missionaries active in the Early Church, where is the NT term for missionary? A clue can be found in the usage of the Greek Church from the beginnings right up to the present in which the word apostolos or "apostle" has continually been used for the missionary ministry, including biblical references to James and companions of Paul (Gal. 1:19; Rom. 16:7; 2 Cor. 8:23; Phil. 2:25; Acts 14:4, 14). The Roman Catholic church has retained the term apostolate to designate the missionary ministry. Kirsopp Lake states flatly that there are two usages of apostolos in the NT, one limiting it to the Twelve in certain contexts, and another used in the sense of a Christian missionary (Jackson and Lake, The Beginnings of Christianity, 5:50-51). There is a growing consensus among scholars to consider that this wider usage of "apostle" is indeed the "missionary" of the NT (Hesselgrave). The theological meaning of mission. The ultimate goal of missions is to glorify God in the fulfillment of His redemptive purposes for mankind through the extension of the kingdom of God. This evangelistic goal is delineated by the Great Commission as (1) making disciples and (2) incorporating them into churches. The evangelical commitment to biblical evangelism is not to be understood as excluding social concern, including the seeking of social justice for all, but rather as requiring it as a proper corollary to evangelism. The mission of the Church must be pioneered by specialists (missionaries, evangelists, church planters), but it is best completed by a universal commitment to witness by all believers through the use of their spiritual gifts in response to the need for and the call to ministry, whether among tribal peoples or in the inner city of the world's great metropolitan areas. The only safeguard against the syncretism of the content of the gospel is the proper indi-genization and contextualization of the forms of the gospel in responsible, self-sufficient churches. Sending missions must continue while the vast majority of people in the world are without the gospel and have no near neighbors who can share it with them. The base and field of mission must be seen as worldwide, not excluding or neglecting any who are without the gospel, whether across the street or across the world. See evangelism, great commission, soul winning, church, gospel, apostle, mission of christ.
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