Theology beacon dictionary of theology
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- For Further Reading: Howard, Newness of Life; Ad-cock, Fundamentals of Psychology; Tournier, The Whole Person in a Broken World. RICHARD
- For Further Reading: Lewis, The Practice of the Christian Life; Law, A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life; Taylor
- For Further Reading: Shoemaker, Self-knowledge and Self-identity; Wolman, Dictionary of Behavioral Science
- A Source Book for Ancient Church History, 466-69;
- Love Enthroned, 134
- DEACON, MINISTER (MINISTRY), SERVICE, SERVANT OF JEHOVAH. For Further Reading: Greenleaf, Servant Leadership; Yoder, The Politics of
- SERVANT, CONSECRATE (CONSECRATION), SERVICE, STEWARDSHIP. For Further Reading: Schultz, Portraits of a Servant; Mudge
- CONSECRATE (CONSECRATION), OBEDIENCE
- SERVITUDE. See
- CHARACTER, GROW (GROWTH), HOLINESS, SEVEN DEADLY SINS, TEMPERANCE, VIRTUE.
- SIN, CHARACTER, HOLINESS, SEVEN CARDINAL VIRTUES.
- MAN, WOMAN. DIVINE IMAGE, FAMILY, ADULTERY POLYGAMY.
For Further Reading: Cox, The Secular City; Ellul, The New Demons, 1-47; Schaeffer, Death in the City. Glenn R. Boring SELF. "Self" is a relatively new term as it is used in theology today. It is a creation of the modern science of psychology. A theological treatment of man today—in his relationships with himself, other persons, and God—is veritably impossible without an extensive use of the term. In the theological context "self" refers to one's inner identity —that which makes him an individual and/or a person as distinct from others. There are many factors that relate to the formulation of that self, which in turn also determine its "health" or pathology. It is the self that remains constant through all of the various conditions that either develop or destroy it. How is this modern term "self" related to Scripture? Significantly, there is no term for self, per se, in the NT. Some modern versions translate anthrdpos (man) as "self" in Rom. 6:6 (nasb, niv, rsv); 7:22 (rsv, neb); Eph. 4:22, 24 and Col. 3:9-10 (nasb, niv). But the diversified translations of anthrdpos in these same verses reflect the lack of any clear concept—"man" (Rom. 7:22, nasb); "nature" (Eph. 4:22, 24 and Col. 3:9-10, rsv neb); and even "being" (Rom. 7:22, niv). Most often "self" is part of the compound words "myself," "yourself," "himself," etc., which are translations of reflexive pronouns (heautous et al.) or the reflexive use of the pronoun (autos et al). The self is that which one is able to objectify as himself. However, in contrast to modern psychology where the self is exclusively inward, in the NT the objectified self is the whole or total person, both inner and outer. Very close to the meaning of "self" is the dramatic use of the first person singular ("I"), especially when it is reinforced by the personal pronoun ego (cf. Gal. 2:19-20). In his dramatic introspection (Rom. 7:14-25) Paul described the conflict between his mind and flesh and equated the mind with his inner self (anthrdpos, v. 22), and the flesh with his "members," obviously outward (v. 23). Significantly, both the mind and the flesh were identified as "I" or "me" (cf. vv. 18, 25). Paul exhorted the Romans to present (pari-stemi) "yourselves to God ... and your members" (Rom. 6:13, nasb); and the identical "presentation" terminology in v. 19 and 12:1 makes it clear that such a presentation included their members or body. Yet a word of caution is needed. When Paul wrote, "I have been crucified with Christ; and it is no longer I [ego] who live" (Gal. 2:20, nasb), he does not mean that the self (as understood today) actually dies! If that were so, the person would cease to exist. In the strictest sense the "I" that is crucified with Christ, dies in a theological
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sense—meaning that we participate by faith in the Cross death of Christ. The essential self does not die or cease to exist, nor can we crucify ourselves. Thus the expression "self-crucifixion" is a misnomer. "Dying with Christ" is a metaphor and is best understood as dying fo self. See man, human nature, death to self, cross (cross-bearing). For Further Reading: Howard, Newness of Life; Ad-cock, Fundamentals of Psychology; Tournier, The Whole Person in a Broken World. RICHARD E. HOWARD SELF-CONTROL. See discipline. SELF-CRUCIFIXION. See death to self. SELF-EXAMINATION. The biblical basis for the Christian discipline of self-examination is most explicit in such passages as 1 Cor. 11:28-32 (where it refers to preparation for receiving the Lord's Supper), Gal. 6:4 (where the reference is to conduct as evidence of grace), and 2 Cor. 13:5. In the latter, it is the recommended antidote for judging others, and its purpose is to discover whether one is truly Christian, i.e., shares the life of Christ. Historically at the extremes, classical ascetic theology (mostly Roman Catholic) contrasts with monergistic views of salvation by grace which see such self-discipline as self-righteousness. Overemphasis on the practice has been rightly criticized as unhealthy subjectivism, or morbid preoccupation with self. Proper self-examination, however, is on firm ground theologically. Only man, made in God's image, is endowed with the power to pass judgment upon himself in the lonely privacy of his personhood. He alone can differentiate between what he is and what he ought to be, an endowment reflected in conscience. He cannot permanently escape this responsibility. One's "inwardness," in spirit and intention, is the supreme test of Christian faith. To face God is also to face self, since God looks on the heart. To be afraid of silence and one's true self is the revelation of inner poverty. William Law, in his chapter on evening prayer, laid stress on the deliberate, step-by-step recollection of the actions of the day, along with confession, not of a general sort, but of each particular failure, as a means to reformation and blessing. Law warned of the ease with which we excuse human frailty, without sorrow, and thus without amendment. Searching self-knowledge of one's natural temperament, chief weaknesses, prevalent temptations, as well as providential opportunities, through the Spirit's ministry, becomes an important means of grace. The older writers on this theme recommend the earnest contemplation of death as a means to the illumination of life. The Scheme of Self-examination used by the first Methodists at Oxford gave attention, in a series of self-addressed questions,to the practicality of the expression of neighbor love in the daily round. See conscience, christian perfection, self, grow (growth). For Further Reading: Lewis, The Practice of the Christian Life; Law, A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life; Taylor, The Rules and Exercises of Holy Living. Arnold E. Airhart SELF-IMAGE. The idea or concept one has of oneself is one's self-image. Such an image is possible because self-consciousness is a part of the image of God in man (Gen. 1:26-27). O. A. Curtis describes self-grasp and self-estimate as capabilities of a person which allows one to say, "I am not this or that, I am myself" (The Christian Faith, 20-22). Lewis Sherrell identifies "self-transcendence" as the quality which makes it possible to ask, "What does the self 'see' when it thinks of itself?" (The Gift of Power; 9, 35). The self-image may be an idealized conception of oneself, or an intelligent and honest insight into reality. Paul warned of the peril of thinking of oneself "more highly than he ought to think" (Rom. 12:3). If the self-image corresponds to reality, self-understanding and self-knowledge result in a healthy personality. If not, this becomes the basis for anxiety and certain mental and emotional illnesses. The key to a healthy self-image is loving God with the whole self, a loving made possible and natural by being sanctified wholly (Luke 10:27; 1 Thess. 5:23). See self, death to self, humility, life-style.
478 SEPARATION—SERVANT prior to the Council of Ephesus in 431, both of which condemned Pelagius and his doctrines, John Cassianus founded, expounded, and defended the views which became known as Semi-Pelagian. Other earnest men, such as Vincent of Lerins and Faustus, bishop of Rhegium, fearing the demoralizing, fatalistic, and deterministic effects of Augustine's doctrines of irresistible grace, predestination, and perseverance, carried the system forward until it was condemned by the Synods of Orange and Valence in 529 (Lat-ourette, Christianity Through the Ages, 59-61). Primary emphases of Semi-Pelagianism included the views that original sin and free will are not mutually exclusive, that the divine and human wills cooperate and are coefficient factors in regeneration, that regeneration is the divine blessing on human volition, and that guilt comes, not from original sin, but only by an individual act willingly committed. Wesleyan-Arminian theologians reject the idea of human merit and other tendencies toward naturalism and humanism of Semi-Pelagianism, by placing the weight of the synergistic system on the side of God and His prevenient grace. See pelagianism, augustinianism, synergism, monergism, arminianism. For Further Reading: Ayer, A Source Book for Ancient
Separation is illustrated by the wedding vow. Israel in Scripture is considered married to Yahweh. The NT Church is the Bride of Christ, and friendship with the world is branded as adultery (Jas. 4:4). The "world" may designate the people who do not serve God, and/or their culture. Conservative Christians believe that to be saved, men must separate from all evil by thorough repentance. Holiness theologians stress also—perhaps more than other conservatives—a further separation. The converted must renounce self and yield all ambitions and affections into the hands of God. This act Paul calls a crucifixion. He says, "The world is crucified unto me, and I unto the world" (Gal. 6:14). Separation is not the same as either regeneration or entire sanctification, but both a precondition and a result. Needed divine grace is freely given, both to cease the committing of sin, in repentance, and to see and renounce its inner nature in consecration. See repentance, consecrate (consecration), world (worldliness). For Further Reading: Steele, Love Enthroned, 134 ff; Will, Commentary on Matthew, 68-69. Louis A. Bouck
The OT shows servants managing possessions, looking after family affairs, giving counsel, and carrying messages—much like service professions in today's technical society. But servanthood meant more than that. The patriarch Job, King David, and the prophet Isaiah are all called "servants of God." So was Israel; indeed, prophetic writings contain frequent calls to its faithful servanthood. Nowhere is the paradox of leadership through service more forcefully expressed than in Isaiah (esp. chaps. 42; 52—54: The stricken one who "hath borne our griefs" will be exalted). Jewish theologians draw from these passages the messianic character of Israel, despite dispersions and holocausts. Christians acknowledge Christ as the One through whom the Abrahamic covenant becomes the "light to the nations." The Church proclaims this Good News. Jesus consciously accepted the servant role as prophesied by Isaiah, teaching it in respect to himself and to His followers (see Mark 10:42-45; Matt. 20:27; Col. 2:5-11; 2 Cor. 4:5). He rebuked His disciples for seeking preferment and privilege, admonishing them repeatedly to find greatness in service. Christ is Pioneer of the new humanity which regains righteous mastery of the earth (Hebrews 2). Jesus washed dusty feet, served tables, touched untouchables, ate with outcasts, and healed the sick. That His example has been followed, in part at least, by the Church can be evidenced by a long history of compassionate
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service activities and agencies. The Protestant principle of the universal priesthood of believers arises from servant theology, both in worship and in work, whereby each becomes a channel of God's grace to another. See DEACON, MINISTER (MINISTRY), SERVICE, SERVANT OF JEHOVAH. For Further Reading: Greenleaf, Servant Leadership; Yoder, The Politics of Jesus. ARTHUR O. ROBERTS SERVANT OF JEHOVAH. One who is voluntarily committed to the redemptive mission of God in the world after the pattern of and in the likeness of Jesus Christ. OT meanings are rooted in the divinely anointed obedient persons (patriarchs, Moses, Job, Elijah, Isaiah, etc.) who gave their complete obedience to God as Master. This allegiance and the relationship grew to a sacred bond, reaching its culmination in the description of the Suffering Servant of Jehovah (or Yahweh) in Isa. 42:1-4; 49:1-6; 50:4-9; 52:13—53:12. The models of and the concept of servanthood in the old covenant find their completeness in the new covenant in the person of Jesus Christ. He saw himself as servant of God (Mark 9:12; 10:45; 14:14) and presented himself as the Model to His disciples for all time. A contemporary servant of God is one who is totally offered to the will of God the Father even as was Christ (Matt. 23:11; Mark 10:45; Luke 22:26; John 13:16). The most frequently used words in the NT for servant are "child" and "slave." A servant of God, then, in the likeness of Christ, is adopted by grace into the household of God and achieves fulfillment by joyous abandon to do the Father's will. Other biblical words that are translated as "servant" suggest meanings of "attendant," "table waiter," "domestic servant," "public servant," and "menial slave.". Historically, the meaning of being a servant of Yahweh began to take shape in the mission of the covenant people Israel as typified in their leaders (i.e., Moses), came to its personal embodiment in Jesus Christ, and has since been finding its application in the lives of followers of Christ who are anointed by the Spirit of God. At the center of the mission of the Church is the continuation of the servant role (Phil. 2:5-11). Christian servanthood should not be seen as cringing servility or joyless subjection to bondage. Rather, it may be seen, as Christ understood it, as the highest form of selfless dedication to the redeeming purpose of God the Father. A servant of Yahweh is a divinely honored ambassador, a minister, a commissioned and empowered colleague with Christ (1 Cor. 4:1-2). The doctrine of the Church as the Body of Christ in the world has direct relationship to the scriptural teaching that living Christians are the enfleshment of the servant Christ. Contemporary servants of Yahweh share corporately the same mandate and joy as did Jesus. See SERVANT, CONSECRATE (CONSECRATION), SERVICE, STEWARDSHIP.
The word is applied in the OT largely to priests of the sanctuary. Their consecration by blood and by oil suggests the need in Christian service for the blood of Christ and the oil of the Spirit. To serve the Lord is both our privilege and our choice. "Choose you this day whom ye will serve" (Josh. 24:15). It is Christ or Belial, God or mammon (money), but not both, for no man can serve two masters (Matt. 6:24). To serve Christ is to follow Him through death to self, and a resulting fruitfulness (John 12:24-26). Like Him we must bear the cross, for the servant is not above his Lord (Matt. 10:24). To everyone, Christian service brings responsibility to fulfill the Great Commission. This may involve suffering: "Serving the Lord with all humility of mind, and with many tears, and temptations" (Acts 20:19); but it brings blessing: "There stood by me this night the angel of God, whose I am, and whom I serve" (27:23). Service to God should be grateful and joyful (Deut. 28:47). An example is the OT love-slave. Bankrupt, he served six years, going free in the seventh. If, however, he renounced freedom, saying, "I love my master," he became a servant forever, entering into a new and closer relationship to his master. Like the Hebrew servant, Christians at some point face a choice. Either we go back to our "freedom" and failure, or forward, declaring, "I am, O Lord, wholly and forever Thine." Our reasonable, or spiritual, service is to present our all to God, receiving a divine transformation, and proving in personal experience what is that good, and acceptable, and perfect will of God (Rom. 12:1-2). See CONSECRATE (CONSECRATION), OBEDIENCE, SERVANT, MINISTRY PRUDENCE, 480 SERVITUDE—SEX, SEXUALITY For Further Reading: Wood, Perfect Love, 227-31; Tay- lor, Life in the Spirit, 109-24; Geiger, The Word and the Doctrine, 271-429. louis A. bouck SERVITUDE. See bondage. SEVEN CARDINAL VIRTUES. The seven cardinal virtues stem from the field of Christian ethics; they are sometimes related to the seven gifts of the Spirit (cf. Isa. 11:2). These virtues were named by the medieval church as the basal elements of character. The seven attitudes include faith, hope, love, justice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude. They are called cardinal because all other Christian virtues are said to hinge on one or the other of these seven. The first three are often called theological virtues because they are firmly rooted in the NT (cf. 1 Cor. 13:13). The last four are known as natural, or moral, virtues because they are rooted chiefly in Greek philosophy: Plato's Republic stressed the virtues of wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. Though these four natural virtues were prominent in ancient philosophy, the churchmen found ample support for them in Scripture. Justice was a hallmark of the prophets; inspired wisdom came from Hebrew teachers; temperance was commended by Peter (2 Pet. 1:6) and by Paul (1 Cor. 9:25; Gal. 5:23; Titus 1:8). In the Scriptures "courage" is akin to the parallel Greek "virtue," but the source of biblical courage almost always derives from one's confidence in the promises and the power of God. The churchmen of the Middle Ages thus saw the best ethical thinking of the Greeks corroborating God's revelation in Scripture. A. b. D. Alexander writes: "Under the influence of Ambrose and Augustine, the cardinal virtues henceforth form a generally accepted scheme for the Christian treatment of systematic ethics" (ERE, 11:431). This has been true especially for Roman Catholic theology. Protestant ethics has given less attention to the cardinal virtues. But both Catholics and Protestants agree that it is man's relationship to God which gives cohesion and unity to his moral life. The NT attitudes of faith, hope, and love toward God are the primary elements for coordinating Christian character. See CHARACTER, GROW (GROWTH), HOLINESS, SEVEN DEADLY SINS, TEMPERANCE, VIRTUE. For Further Reading: ERE, 11:430-32; Stalker, The
The idea arises from the religionist's concern to discover the relative importance of moral values —or disvalues (cf. the question of the NT lawyer, "Master, which is the great commandment in the law?" [Matt. 22:36]). The seven sins at the top of this list were pride, covetousness, lust, envy, gluttony, anger, and sloth. Of these, lust and covetousness are named in the Ten Commandments. Jesus warned against pride (Mark 7:22) and sloth (Matt. 25:26). The Epistles speak specifically of envy 0as. 4:5) and anger (Eph. 4:26), while the wise man of the OT warns against gluttony (Prov. 23:21). These sins head the list because they represent the primary human urges that are most likely to give rise to sin. They are thus highly subversive of the law of God and of the church. Such sins are deadly or mortal because they wilfully violate the divine law, destroy friendship with God, and cause the death of the soul. The Roman church contrasts these deadly sins with the sins that are only venial. Even these lesser sins tend to injure the spiritual life, but they do not of themselves bring eternal death (cf. 1 John 5:16-17). Some theologians note that the seven are root sins—most likely to be sources for other sins. They are "deadly" in their fatal effects on both character and salvation. They are not deadly in the sense of being unforgivable or beyond the curative and delivering power of God. See SIN, CHARACTER, HOLINESS, SEVEN CARDINAL VIRTUES. For Further Reading: Alexander, ERE; Stalker, The Seven Deadly Sins. A. F. HARPER SEX, SEXUALITY. The Scriptures of the OT and NT are clear that human sexuality is a matter of sacred concern for God. Man's sexuality finds its origin in His creative design. His most holy purposes for man are inextricably linked with its proper expression. His best gifts of human joy and fulfillment are most commonly related to its proper use. It is part of a great and sacred mystery (Eph. 5:32). Human sexual activity is the occasion for the begetting of human life. In this, man exercises the power that is God-given and godlike. Two people give existence and destiny to another without that person's request or consent. This power, granted to man in his freedom, is his to SHAME 481
use or abuse. It is one of God's most serious gifts to man. Failure to use this power responsibly brings judgment. Correct use brings blessing. Sex can become the means for the expression of the most sacred form of human love. Greater than the love of friend for friend, or that of parent and child, the love of spouse for spouse within a biblical marriage covenant can assume a quality without equal in any other human relationship. Love within that covenant when exclusive (monogamous) and enduring, can produce a level of mutual giving and receiving, a life of exchange, that is uniquely fulfilling. The union then of one life with another produces a unity which the Scriptures call "one flesh" (Gen. 2:24). The beauty and sacredness of this is in striking contrast to the products which result when man expresses his sexuality outside this God-intended context. This should not be surprising when one notes the biblical context in which man's sexuality is introduced. In Gen. 1:27 and 5:1-2, we are told that God made man in His own image, male and female. The purpose here is not to suggest sexuality in God. Rather, it is to indicate the nature of man which enables him to share in a life that is like that which God knows, a life in love. It is clear that God intended human sexual differentiation and that to be a human person is to be either male or female. No one is both. Thus the concept of man transcends maleness or female-ness because it is inclusive of both. In this sense neither male nor female in himself or herself is fully man. The minimal unit of humanity that is fully man must be inclusive of both. Every human individual is thus incomplete, and his or her sexuality is the sign of that incompleteness. The individual person finds fulfillment in another whose difference makes that fulfillment possible. In the union of those differences human love at its best is obtainable. Only in the union of those differences is reproduction and the future of mankind possible. The fact that human sexuality biblically is related to the making of man in God's image has led some theologians to see in the expression of man's sexuality within marriage that is exclusive and enduring a limited, finite analogy at the human level of the inner nature of the Triune God. There three Persons, none of which exhausts in himself the Godhead, and each of which is to be differentiated from the others, coinhere in a life of mutual giving and receiving of which man's "one flesh" is supposed to be a creaturely analogy. See the remarks of Jesus in the Gospel of John on the relationship of the Father, the Son, and the Spirit to each other. The above makes marriage a viable analogy for illustrating the relationship of Christ to the Church (Eph. 5:21-33). It must be kept in mind, though, that the relationship of Christ and the Church is the prior one. Logically the plan of God for a bride for His Son was before His plan for a bride for man. Thus the relationship of Christ and the Church should not be seen as like that of husband and wife but vice versa. In this man has an eternal and an unchanging pattern for the use of his sexuality. Man's sexuality is both analogy and parable. It is to illustrate and to teach an eternal purpose. No man's fulfillment is in himself. His true life is found in another. The human marriage relationship is biblically defined. Man's true fulfillment in love is in God. This should make obvious why the Scripture attaches the highest penalty to the nonbiblical use of man's sexuality. When engaged in with the person to whom one is not married, sex brings God's judgment instead of His blessing. Sexual relations with a person of the same sex or with an animal are perversions and abominations biblically. See Leviticus 18. One's sexuality is a sacred gift to be used for sacred purposes. What one does with his sexuality is indicative of what he does with the God who gave it to him. See MAN, WOMAN. DIVINE IMAGE, FAMILY, ADULTERY POLYGAMY. For Further Reading: Barth, Church Dogmatics, 3, 1:206 ff; Piper, A Christian Interpretation of Sex; Thielicke, Theological Ethics, vol. 3: Sex.
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