Cooperative vs. Non-Cooperative User

Emerging Biometric Technologies

IBVA Technologies (www.ibva.com) is the first company to commercialize the distribution of a neural control device. Essentially, a neural control device is a system that is designed to sense and analyze a persons’ neural waves and then interfaces with a computer to allow the user to navigate (control) with brainwaves; neural control would be analogous to the use of a human hand. The problem is that the technology must be customized for each user and is therefore not easily adaptive to each individual. The researcher has speculated that brainwaves are unique and could emerge from neural devices as the newest biometric. The title of the paper is "Let Me In!!! (Biometric Access & Neural Control)” and was published (November 2001) at http://www.icdri.org/biometrics/let_me_in.htm by the International Center for Disability Resources on the Internet. Republished (March 2002) at http://www.nextinterface.net/biometricsandsecurity and (June 2002) at http://www.findbiometrics.com/Pages/letmein.html.

Corporate and university website are of a tremendous source of information on emerging technologies. The corporate website of PosID, Inc. (http://www.posidinc.com) is an excellent source of information on an emerging biometric technique known as "Infrared Imaging And Pattern Recognition" and it should be as they hold the patented (#5,351,303). 

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

Clark Richter (1999) of Intermec Technologies Corporation author of a white paper titled “RFID: An Educational Primer” he has in general terms explained basic RFID concepts with respect to RFID technology, markets and applications.

Editor Chris Corum (2002) of AVISAIN Inc., authored “Why RFID is the right choice for personal ID”. In this newsletter the author declares that an RFID card is the best and most secure method of identification. An RFID card is a bare bones version of a contactless smart card.

Smart Card Technologies

Per Walder (1997), the best overall way to secure an enterprise infrastructure, whether it be small or large is use a smart card. A smart card is a portable device with an embedded central processing unit (CPU). The smart card can either be fashioned to resemble a credit card, identification card, radio frequency identification (RFID), or a Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) card (Biocentric Solutions Inc., n.d.). The smart card can be used to store data of all types, but it is commonly used to store encrypted data, human resources data, medical data, and biometric data (template). The smart card can be access via a card reader, PCMCIA slot, or contactless proximity reader; it is therefore in compliance with section 508 of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) (Walder, 1997).

A smart card is the best storage medium to use when implementing a biometric authentication system; only by the using a smart card can an organization satisfy all security and legal requirements (Biocentric Solutions Inc., n.d.). Corcoran et al. (1999) stated, “This process irrefutably authenticates the person presenting the card as the same person to whom the cryptographic keys belong and provides the necessary tight binding between cryptographic key storage and the authorized user of the cryptographic keys.” (p. 5).

Smart Card Alliance (http://www.smartcardalliance.org) is a not-for-profit organization that is known among the smart card industry as the premiere source of smart card research data and reports. The mission of the Smart Card Alliance is to promote the acceptance of smart card technologies. The mission of the Smart Card Alliance would be analogous to the mission of the Biometrics Consortium, which is to promote acceptance of biometrics.

The premiere expert on the use of RFIDs and smart cards as assistive technology to aid people with disabilities is Dr. John Gill, OBE FIEE of the Royal National Institute for the Blind. Dr. Gill has participated in numerous studies and published multiple papers that are of great significance to this study. Other than the historical documentation that has been contributed by Dr. Gill, the research has also been participating in a one-on-one conversation with Dr. Gill via email exchange.

Assistive Technologies

While published books are scarce, there are many more source of literature related to assistive technologies from government and nonprofit organizations, both domestic to the United States and international. The accessible future was authored by the National Council on Disability [NCD] (2001, June 21) and is a publication that attempts to establish that an assistive technology framework is a civil rights concept.

As implied by Heldrick (1999), the employment of assistive technologies within companies has also created a multitude of developmental staffing and creative financing issues.

Cultural Barrier (Disabled & Elderly)

In the 1990’s, the medical model concept (old paradigm) started to shift ever so slightly to what is nowadays known as the disability paradigm (new paradigm). This shift in paradigm has lead to the rethinking of many related theories, concepts, and practices from those that viewed disabilities under the medical model paradigm to what is now considered to be that of a social model (the disability paradigm) (Barnartt & Altman, 2001). Some of the most popular are the theory of work adjustment, organizational career theory, Super’s theory, and the role theory (Szymanski & Parker, 1996).

As stated in the proclamation of problem of this research paper, the critical shortage of qualified personnel in the workplace, is partly related to the change of societies from that of an industrial based workforce to a knowledge based workforce, partly because the baby boomers have only had about half as many children as their parents. As a result the number of 20 to 24 year olds entering the workforce continues to fall (NCD, 2001). And partly because, medical advances has contributed to the rapid growth of an aging society, as such the aging seniors are having to working longer in order to prepare for retirement (Schaie & Schooler, 1998).

The elderly paradigm is not so dissimilar from that of the old disability paradigm. For as people age, their vision, hearing, cognitive, and mobility abilities start to diminish. Charness, Parks & Sabel (2001) have stated that, “If technology is not equipped to deal with these natural human changes, it is poorly designed, and further disenfranchises segments of the society” (p. 47). The societies that Charness, Parks & Sabel (2001) are referring to are those people of variable abilities.

Universal Design

Adaptation to People of Variable Abilities

The International Center for Disability Resources on the Internet (ICDRI) has within the grasp of it’s website and experts a theoretical account of numerous theories, concepts, and practices with respect to people with disabilities. By no means is this complete list of dedicated and prestigious organizations; it is only a few. But, the same can be said of the following nonprofit and governmental organizations; the National Organization on Disability, the United States Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, and the United States Department of Labor.

Dr. John Gill, the Chief Scientist for the Royal National Institute for the Blind has addressed numerous issues surrounding the adaptation of assistive technologies to the elderly and people with disabilities. Dr. Gill is well respected and he has published many papers (Design of smart card systems to meet the needs of disabled and elderly persons) and conducted studies (SATURN Project).

Privacy/Legal Issues

The Americans Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) is only one of many local, state, federal, and international organizations with legitimate concerns about the security (privacy) or misuse of the biometric data collected by the government and private companies (Winter, 2000). The aforementioned concerns are of such importance that two organizations were formed to address the concerns, the first is the International Biometric Industry Association (www.ibia.org), which is sponsored by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and the second is the Bioprivacy Organization (www.bioprivacy.org), which is sponsored by the International Biometric Group (www.biometricgroup.com) (Woodlands Online, n.d.).

Attorney Susan Gindin of the San Diego Law Review has authored an extraordinary paper that details numerous informational privacy and legal issues of the Internet age. Even though her paper “Lost and found in cyberspace: Informational privacy in the age of the Internet” was published in 1997 much of the content is still applicable today.

Security Issues

Security has always been a major concern for all information technology professionals. To that end, many countries have conducted studies; the Information Assurance Technical Framework (IATF) is one such study that was sponsored by the National Security Agency (NSA).

However, it is important to note that there exist a commonality in security guidelines between all countries and private institutions. Identification and Authentication (I&A) methods consist of three common category types, a password (something you know), a physical token (something you have), and a biometric (something you are). The most recommended I&A method involves combining two of the three I&A category types (i.e. physical token and a biometric). The most common standardized encryption method used to secure a company’s infrastructure is the Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) approach (NSA, 2000).

The PKI approach consists of two keys with a binary string ranging in size from 1024-bits to 2048-bits, the first key is a public key (widely known) and the second key is a private key (only known by the owner). However, the PKI must also be stored and inherently it too can fall prey to the same authentication limitation of a password, PIN, or token. It too can be guessed, lost, stolen, shared, hacked, or circumvented; this is even further justification for a biometric authentication system (Corcoran et al.).

Controlling access to logical and physical assets of both the virtual and tangible worlds are not the only concerns that must be addressed. Security managers must also take into account security of the biometric data (template) (Walder, 1997).

The biometric data can be stored in a number of ways, either in a centralized database or in a distributed system. Examples of a distributed system would be an optical card, memory card, proximity card, token, or a smart card. No matter what storage method is used, the biometric data must be encrypted to ensure that security requirements are met (Biocentric Solutions Inc., n.d.).

A biometric authentication system that is correctly implemented can provide unparalleled security, enhanced convenience, heightened accountability, superior fraud detection, and is extremely effective in discouraging fraud (Nanavati, S., Thieme, & Nanavati, R., 2002).

Disability Demographics

William P. LaPlant Jr. has and continues to aid people with disabilities by volunteering his expertise to those organizations in need of assistance. As such, he has served in multiple positions to include serving as the Chairman of the International Center for Information Technology Standards, Information Technology Access Interfaces Technical Committee (INCITS/V2). It is, however, Mr. LaPlant’s income producing position as a computer scientist for the U.S. Census Bureau that has aid to establish current disability demographics. Mr. LaPlant has researched and composed an excellent and detailed reference paper titled, “Disability Statistics & Policy in the United States of America and the World” that clearly brings together all disability demographics. The research paper has been published by the International Center for Disability Resources on the Internet (ICDRI).

Additional sources of literature relating to demographics can be found via Individuals with Disabilities: Enabling Advocacy Link (IDEAL) and the National Organization on Disability (NOD) to name a few.

Electronic News Sources

Electronic news sources provide timely notification of trends and have aided to spread the word of biometric technologies that have been successful and/or unsuccessful implemented within various international market sectors of law enforcement, government, travel and immigration, corporate, financial, and healthcare. Here is a small indefinite quantity of those sources, New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com), Washington Post (http://www.washingtonpost.com), Macon Wire Service (http://www.macon. com), The Register (http://www.theregister.co.uk), Business Week (http://www.businessweek.com), Newsweek/MSNBC (http://www.msnbc.com/ news), British Broadcasting Corporation (http://www.bbc.co.uk.com), Los Angeles Times (http://www.latimes.com), American for Civil Liberties Union (http://www.aclu.org/news), Find Articles (http://www.findarticles.com), Contactless News (http://www.contactlessnews. com), and Government Computer News (http://www.gcn.com).

Study Associated Standards

The Architectural and Transportation Barriers Compliance Board (2002); have published the Electronic and Information Technology Accessibility Standards in the Federal Register on December 21, 2000. This document was crafted as a directed study in response to the technology barriers and accessibility guidelines contained within section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1998. The sections of the Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1998 are to all intents and purposes amendments to the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Additionally, standards committees like the International Committee for Information Technology and Standards (INCITS) and other non-profit organizations have aid in addressing the concept of universal design as relative to assistive technologies.

Summarization of Related Literature

The work of authors such as Szymanski and Parker (1996) have alluded to the fact that before people with disabilities could not be fully integrated into the workplace until the culture of the workplace becomes more welcoming. This is because the medical model did not perceive people with disabilities as potential workforce assets. Hence, not much emphasize had been placed on resolving the workplace barriers. The shift of paradigms from that of the medical model to the disability model has fostered a change in the perceptions of society and the workplace culture. Additionally, the National Council on Disability believes that the only way to shift the culture is to establish legislation (NCD, 2001). Still, Hagner and DiLeo (1993) advocate a middle ground approach of legislation and accessibility standards.

The related literature will add credence to the threefold problem and will demonstrate that there exist a theoretical resolution that could feasible be adapted to the environments of schools, businesses and society at large.

Applied Research Methodologies

Chapter 3
The purpose of this chapter is to present the research methods used to address the elements of previously described threefold problem of establishing a secure access methodology of electronic devices and technology for people with variable abilities. The general research methodologies employed in this chapter are to a greater extent conducive to the exploration and grouping of qualitative commonalities. Commonalities will be the key.

A mixed-method research strategy of integrating different elements is likely to produce better results in terms of quality and scope. This is a practical and an ideally more monolithic way to conceptualize and instigate the evaluation process. The mixed-method puts forth a genuine effort to be reflexive and offers a more critical evaluation of case studies. It is a practical and ideally more useful means of ensuring accountability to broader audiences (Yin, 1994). The researcher has combined both quantitative and qualitative research methods.

Figure 1 is a graphical representation of the aforementioned research approach that has been employed in this paper by the researcher:

Figure 1: Graphical Representation of Employed Research Approach

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