Rosewood table –table made of rosewood

Rosewood table –table made of rosewood

world peace – peace all over the world

sea water- water from the sea

school child – a child who goes to school

The grammatical relations observed in NPs with pre-posed adjuncts may convey the following meanings:

1. 
   subject-predicate relations: weather change;
   
2. 
   object relations: health service, women hater;
   
3. 
   adverbial relations: a) of time: morning star,
   

c) comparison: button eyes,

d) purpose: hair brush.

It is important to remember that the noun-adjunct is usually marked by a stronger stress than the head.

According to their position all pre-posed adjuncts may be divided into pre-adjectivals and adjectiavals. The position of adjectivals is usually right before the noun-head. Pre-adjectivals occupy the position before adjectivals. They fall into two groups: a) limiters (to this group belong mostly particles): just, only, even, etc. and b) determiners (articles, possessive pronouns, quantifiers – the first, the last).

b) With Postposed adjuncts (Postmodification) that comprise all the units all the units placed after the head: students from Boston. Adjuncts used in post-head position are called post-posed adjuncts.These are, most typically,

The pattern of basic prepositional NPs is N¹ prep. N². The most common preposition here is ‘of’ – a cup of tea, a man of courage. It may have quite different meanings: qualitative - a woman of sense, predicative – the pleasure of the company, objective – the reading of the newspaper, partitive – the roof of the house. Other illustrations: a woman in white, the man behind the house, the book on the shelf

-Some native adjectives: times immemorial;

- borrowed adjectives, especially those coming from languages where adjectives are postposed: blood royal, secretary general, inspector general

-adjectives originating from participles: the parties concerned

-adjectives ending in –able. –ible with preposed adjectives in the superlative degree: the most beautiful girl imaginable, the best way possible;or with no ,every, only:no person imaginable, the only way possible

Infinitives

Head-nouns with adjuncts-infinitives fall into 3 groups:

1. 
   verbal nouns: a desire to help, a wish to see can be transformed into x desires to help, X wishes to see
   
2. 
   adjectival nouns: a willingness to go, a readiness to join→ X is willing to go, X is ready to join
   
3. 
   substance nouns: a telegram to send, a book to read, which can be transformed into structures with modal meaning → a telegram which must be sent, a book which can be read
   

the head of these NP usually denote size, number, colour, age:

a child the same ag

the plank the right size

Ing-forms with dependent words, adverbs and prepositions are possible as post-posed adjuncts
c) Mixed modification that comprises all the units in both pre-head and post-head position: two smart hard-working students from Boston, a politically active youth in a brown suit

The verb-phrase.
The VP is a definite kind of the subordinate phrase with the verb as the head. The verb is considered to be the semantic and structural centre not only of the VP but of the whole sentence as the verb plays an important role in making up primary predication that serves the basis for the sentence. VPs are more complex than NPs as there are a lot of ways in which verbs may be combined in actual usage. Valent properties of different verbs and their semantics make it possible to divide all the verbs into several groups depending on the nature of their complements

Classification of verb-phrases.
VPs can be classified according to the nature of their complements or in accordance with transitivity\intransitivity of head-words. In the classification taking into account the nature of the compliments the VP are divided into VP with nominal verb complements (to see a house), VP with adverbial verb compliments (to behave well) and VP with mixed complementation ( To see a house clearly)

Nominal complementation takes place when one or more nominal complements (nouns or pronouns) are obligatory for the realization of potential valency of the verb: to give smth. to smb., to phone smb., to hear smth.(smb.), etc.

Adverbial complementation occurs when the verb takes one or more adverbial elements obligatory for the realization of its potential valency: He behaved well, I live …in Kyiv (here).

Mixed complementation – both nominal and adverbial elements are obligatory: He put his hat on he table (nominal-adverbial).

According to the nature of the head-verb VP are divided into:

1. 
   VP, the head of which can be both transitive and intransitive verbs. The verb compliment of such VP is called an extention. These are the types of extention
   

• 
  D crying loudly (The most typical extention)
  
• 
  DP flying high in the air
  

V AP stood, red with anger

V р N living in Paris

V p NP returning in a few days

V p I_n going to it

V p I_d returning from there

V p V_ing leaves without waiting

V p V_ingP leaves without saying a word

V NP waiting two hours

walking five miles

V I_d standing there

V I_self working himself

2. 
   VP, the head of which can be only a transitive verb. The complement is called an object complement. The further subclassification may be based on types of object complements One of the classification of object complements is based on the following principles:
   

• 
  Type of relation between the head and the complement ( always non-prepositional, prepositional or non-prepositional depending on the position of the object complement, always prepositional)
  
• 
  The structure of the object complement (simple or complex)
  

1. 
   OC ( object complement) 1 – always non-prepositional , simple ( to send the doctor away) and complex (to find the car gone)
   
2. 
   OC 2 – prepositional or non-prepositional depending on the position of the OC, simple (to send him a book; to send a book to him)
   
3. 
   OC 3 –always prepositional, simple ( to send for the doctor) and complex ( to rely on the money being paid)
   

3. VP, the head of which is an intransitive verb. The complement is called a qualifying complement. The most typical heads – link-verbs – are to be and to become. They are most frequent in this function and devoid of lexical meaning, and so most appropriate to serve as a connection between ideas expressed by the subject and the predicative. Semi-copulars, such as to look, to seem, to appear, to prove, to turn (he turned red) besides connecting function, contribute into the phase a certain lexical meaning of their own, though weakened. But actually the rest of the intransitives can also appear in this function. They, unlike to be and to become, fully preserve their lexical meaning, acquiring also the function of the copular (link-verb):

The sun rose red → The sun rose+the sun was red

She died young→ She was young+she died

The qualifying complements are usually expressed by nouns and noun phrases:

V_i N(P) becoming a sailor, be a good sailor

Adjectives and adjective phrases:

Vi A(P) becoming angry, looking very angry

Pronouns and pronominal phrases:

Vi I_n(P) becoming something, being anything else

Numerals (quantifiers):

Vi Q returned three (They had gone out two, returned three)

Verbals:

V₁ to V(P) seeming to forget it

V_i V_ing(P) sat reading a book

V_i V_en(P) seeming disturbed

They walked slowly and in silence

Selia was pretty and a good companion

The peculiarity of coordinate phrases is that they are not binary, and may consist of an indefinite number of IC.

In accordance with explicitness\implicitness of means of expressing syntactic relations the coordinate phrases are divided into:

1. 
   syndetic ( means of expressing syntactic relations are explicit, they are conjunctions and connectives): good as well as just, resourceful though unsuccessful, both unfortunate and wrong
   
2. 
   asyndetic (implicit means, such as intonation and word order): warm, pleasant; the young man Edgar
   

Syndetic coordinate phrases are divided into simple and correlative in accordance with the nature of the conjunction:

1. 
   Simple syndetic correlative phrases are those the IC of which are connected with a continuous conjunction ( conjunction which is not broken into parts by IC of the phrase); these are but, or, rather ,as well as, yet, than etc.: It was the sound of a horn, harsh and loud; She was precious but remote; Arthur refused everything but a piece of bread; May uttered no word good or bad ; this book is structural rather than historical ; Repeated though small-scale attempts
   
2. 
   Correlative syndetic coordinate phrases are those the IC of which are connected with a discontinuous conjunction ( the elements of which are separated by IC ): these are both…and, either…or, neither…nor, now… now ,from…to, not…but: either a gerund or a participle, now with one man now with another, not merely possible but necessary
   

Asyndetic coordinate phrases in accordance with possibility\impossibility of inserting a conjunction are divided into:

1. 
   copulative and
   
2. 
   appositive phrases.
   

Appositive asyndetic coordinate phrases are those where the conjunction is not possible. They are almost always binary. The IC are usually expressed by nouns, noun phrases, substantive pronouns and pronominal phrases. The semantic feature is the same referent for the ICs: King Lear, Joh the Baptist, Jack the Ripper; Bill, the grocer's boy; you boys; professor Chad; next morning, Christmas Day; The Volga – the longest river of Europe

The most essential features of the sentence as a linguistic unit are a) its structural characteristics – subject-predicate relations (primary predication), b) its semantic characteristics – it represents a fragment of reality: situations, facts, events. This representation is called a proposition. Communicative and pragmatic characteristics are mostly vivid in an utterance, but they can also be features of a sentence as a language unit (at least in some sentences).

The sentence possesses modality and predication. Modality is a linguistic category expressing whether the contents of the sentence coincide with or deviate from reality from the point of view of the speaker. It is one of the indispensable characteristics of the utterance (sentence).

Traditionally modality is subdivided into subjective and objective modalities.

Objective modality describes the relations between the contents of the utterance and reality as real or unreal: he came₁ – I wish he came_2. In he came₁ the form of the utterance shows that the speaker regards the situation as real, whereas in he came₂ the same situation is represented as unreal.

Subjective modality expresses the attitude of the speaker to the contents of the sentence, whether the speaker considers the the state of things described in the sentence possible, impossible, probable, desirable, necessary, obligatory, probable, obvious etc. In some theories subjective modality is organized into the following scales:

4. 
   wish, intention
   
5. 
   obligation, necessity
   
6. 
   probability, possibility
   

6. 
   Modal words like probably, evidently, possibly, maybe, obviously, seemingly, allegedly, luckily, unluckily etc. Intejections like alas, really or parenthetical expressions like unquestionably, as is known, of course, certainly can also be listed here.
   
7. 
   Intonation, a very powerful means of expressing modality. By intonation alone the speaker can express his doubt as to the truth of the proposition: He is a genius?
   
8. 
   Modal verbs with “I” predicate: I can (must, should, have to)
   
9. 
   Sentence Moods, that is, the ability of the sentence structure to express statements, questions and imperatives. Statements can express the falsity or the truth of the statement ( as to its relation to reality), questions express neutrality – the speaker does not say if the contents are true or false ( is she married? means that the speaker does not know which is true –she is married or she is not married), and the imperative expresses the situation which is not real but which the speaker considers desirable.
   
10. 
    Sentence structures:
    

3. 
   Fused sentence structures with the so-called semilink verbs of the type to look, to seem, to become, to appear (=60 verbs all in all). They are called so because modality and the predicate of the proposition are expressed together, in a kind of fusion. In the sentence He seems to be ill the proposition is ( he ( to be ill), and seems is the grammatical predicate which at the same time expresses modality: seems presupposes that the speaker perceives a certain state of things ( he is ill), but doubts if it is really so. Types of fusion:
   

4. 
   Attitude of the third party:
   

Somebody (a third party) considers that the proposition ( he is a genius) is true. The speaker does not say for himself if he believes or not that (he is a genius) is true. He does not take upon himself the responsibility for the truth of the proposition. But at least he says that it is true that somebody considers the proposition ( he is a genius) to be true.

5. 
   Attitude of the person expressed by the grammatical subject, to himself:
   

The person (he in He considers himself a man) thinks that the proposition ( I am a man) is true. His modality and simultaneously the predicate of the sentence are expressed in a fused fashion by the verb to consider . The speaker of the utterance He considers himself a man does not take upon himself the responsibility for the truth of the proposition (he is a man), but he takes upon himself the responsibility for the truth of the statement He considers himself a man. ( Правда, и я в это верю, что он считает себя настоящим мужчиной. Так ли это на самом деле – бог весть, но уж я уверен, что он действительно считает себя мужчиной).

6. 
   Attitude of the speaker of the utterance to the proposition:
   

The speakers attitude to the propositions ( he is ill) and (she is interested) are clearly shown by the predicates fused with modalily ( look shows that the speaker relies on visual perception, but is not absolutely sure whether the proposition ( he is ill) is true; pretend shows that the speaker is sure that the proposition ( she is interested) is not true.

• 
  Sentences divided into modal frame and proposition. Modal frames are expressed by main clauses, and propositions – by subordinate clauses. The propositions describe the state of things ( facts, events, situations), and the modal frame – the attitude to the state of things given in the proposition:
  

6. And last, but not least, modality can be expresses by a morphological category of Mood, through the word-form, synthetic (built with the help of a grammatical morpheme) or analytical ( built with the help of an auxiliary word and a notional word).

Predication is understood in the following ways:

1. as a correlation with an actual situation

2.as a combination of two concepts: the subject ( logical, not grammatical), the theme of thought, and the predicate, which expresses the property ascribed to the subject in the act of thought. According to this view the sentence the boy is running along the street is divided into the subject (the boy) and the predicate ascribing to it the property of running along the street.

3.as a relation between structural elements of the sentence – grammatical subject and grammatical predicate. Predication in this interpretation is subdivided into primary (expressed by grammatical agreement between the subject and the predicate in marking which the finite verb plays an essential part) and secondary, where there is no agreement, no finite verb and, consequently, no subject and predicate: The night being cold ( he closed the window).

The referential aspect of the sentence is the ability of its elements (and especially its nominal parts) to refer to the things of objective reality. The nominal parts of the sentence have a referential potentiality which is fully realized only in an utterance.
9. Aspects of the structure of Simple and composite sentences

Mono-and polypredicative( simple and composite) sentences are differentiated on the number of predicative lines ( explicit subject-predicate relations expressed with the help of a finite verb). Naturally, polypredicative sentences are those possessing more than one predicative line: When he came home he found nobody there.

There are also transient structures,

1. 
   based both on primary and secondary predication: the best thing would be for you to tell everything; the boss having seen the picture, the staff prepared to listen to the verdict;
   
2. 
   based on ellipsis: you are as good as everybody else ( is); the conduct of the widow must be twice as careful as that of a matron (must be)
   

The structurally simple sentence, nevertheless, based on one predicative line may correspond to more than one situation, thus semantically approaching the composite sentence:

[ (x smokes) is harmful], that is the sentence describes a situation which, as one of its parts, includes another situation.

The simple sentence (structurally) contains 2 situations: he returned to Britain a millionaire = he returned to Britain+he became a millionaire.

The classification of Simple sentences may be based on a lot of principles, the major being classifications based on form (structure) and those based on meaning. The classifications based on structure may take into account the following features:

Minimal structure –expanded structure

Two-member sentence –one-member sentence

Pessonal - indefinite-personal – impersonal (according to the nature of the subject)

With nominal predicates (compound and simple) - with verbal predicates (compound and simple)

The classifications based on meaning may also be based on a lot of features, such as semantic types of predicates, according to which the meaning of the sentences are characterised

1. 
   as expressing "essence" (his dream is to fly, The Earth 9s the third planet of the Solar system), "quantification"(We are four, There ate three windows), "quality" (The grass is green), "relation" (Moscow is larger than Murmansk She is not our sister), "location" (The mother is in the garden, the letter is from Moscow) etc
   
2. 
   as based on states, that is, situations which are static, not changing with the time (to belong, to breathe); activity – dynamic situations with temporal characteristics, which do not have natural end to their realization (to talk, to sit); аccоmplishments, dynamic situations with natural end to their realization (to get dry); achievements, which describe immediate transition from one state to another (to untie)
   
3. 
   as based on situations characterized as stative objectless, dynamic objectless, objective stative , objective dynamic
   

The Composite sentences are traditionally divided into Compound (IC of which are coordinated, and the ranks of UC are equal) and Complex (The ICs of which are not equal , there is a principle clause and a subordinate clause ) composite sentences. Both may be classified into syndetic and asyndetic types.Sentences joined together by means of special function words designed for this purpose are syndetic, those joined without function words are asyndetic (or contact-clauses):

1. 
   syndetic compound sentences: he frowned his eyebrows and she felt irritation
   
2. 
   syndetic complex sentences: he will come if he wants
   
3. 
   asyndetic compound sentences: she looked nice; he was the very pucture of a gentleman
   
4. 
   asyndetic complex sentences: had he been alone he would have been frightened; he thought he was mad
   

.

Despite the fact that IC are a principle and a subordinate clauses, that does not mean that the principle clause is independent of the subordinate. It may be dependent both structurally and semantically: ср. русский Я тот, кому внимала ты…; or the sentence What I want to do is what I mustn't do, where 2 subordinate clauses are What I want to do and what I mustn't do, whereas the main clause is equal to ---is ----, two empty positions for the subject and the predicative and a link-verb.

that faced the river

1. 
   Jack built a house that had a big garden
   

that delighted everyone

b. Jack built a house that stood on the hill which went down to the river that flew between grass-covered banks which were inhabited by an armada of water-birds and little water-animals.

c. Jack built a house that stood on the river which flew between grass covered banks.

The classification of complex sentences is mostly based on the function of the subordinate clause or the type of connection of the main and subordinate clauses.

In accordance with the first principle the subordinate clauses are classified into subject, predicative, object , attributive and adverbial clauses.

In accordance with the second principle the subordinate clauses are subdivided into those

1. 
   which are incorporated into their main clause (matrix clause) in the capacity of a member of the main sentence: I will buy what you tell me to buy ( If the subordinate clause is removed the main clause loses its grammaticality)
   
2. 
   which modify a certain member of the main clause, but are not part and parcel of the main clause: I saw the girl who had a red dress on ( If the subordinate clause is removed the main clause is grammatically correct, but sometimes may be semantically deficient : She was a woman with a profile that resembled a Greek statue
   
3. 
   which modify the main clause as a whole, the least dependent and in some way resemble the clause of a compound sentence: Both girls were in red hats, which didn't happen very often
   

The process of coordination involves the linking of structures of equal grammatical rank — independent clauses in compound sentences asyndetically or with the help of coordinative conjunctions and the correlatives

It is natural that the semantic relations between the coordinate clauses depend to a considerable degree on the lexical meaning of the linking words (conjunctions and correlatives). The functional meaning of some of them is quite definite and unambiguous. Such is, for instance, the conjunction but implying contrast or dissociation between the related items; its meaning is so distinct that there can hardly be any item in the sentence to change the adversative signification as made explicit by this linking word. So and for show several relationships, among them purpose, cause, result, or inference, or and nor indicate what might be described as alternation, choice or opposition. Even and, which is considered to have a very weak lexical meaning, is not purely a coordinator. It usually indicates an additive relationship, and sometimes it intensifies, or indicates continuous and repeated action, as in: She waited and waited. She talked and talked and talked. They went around and around. Obviously conjunctions cannot be considered as empty connecting words, and there is always selection in their use in terms of style and purpose

.Linking words (coordinative conjunctions and the correlatives) in co-ordination can be rated as follows:

1. 
   Copulative, connecting two members and their meanings, the second member indicating an addition of equal importance, or, on the other hand, an advance in time and space, or an intensification, often coming in pairs, then called correlatives: and; both... and; equally... and; alike... and; at once... and; not... nor for neither, or and neither); not (or never)... not (or nor)... either; neither... nor, etc.
   
2. 
   Disjunctive, connecting two members but disconnecting their meaning, the meaning in the second member excluding that in the first: or and in questions whether... or with the force of simple or; or... either; either... or, etc., the disjunctive adverbs else, otherwise, or... or, or... else.
   
3. 
   Adversative, connecting two members, but contrasting their meaning: but, but then, only, still, yet, and yet, however, on the other hand, again, on the contrary, etc.
   
4. 
   Causal, adding an independent proposition explaining the preceding statement, represented only by the single conjunction for: The brook was very high, for a great deal of rain had fallen over night.
   
5. 
   Illative, introducing an inference, conclusion, consequence, result: namely, therefore, on that account, consequently, accordingly, for that reason, so, then, hence, etc.
   
6. 
   Explanatory, connecting words, phrases or sentences and introducing an explanation or a particularisation: namely, to wit, that is, that is to say, or, such as, as, like, for example, for instance, say, let us say, et
   

1. 
   by anaphoric pronouns and possessive determiners in the second clause, referring to NP in the leading clause: I saw a most beautiful girl; she sat on the garden bench combing her hair
   
2. 
   Correspondence of tenses in the clauses
   
3. 
   Lexical and synonymic repetitions or meaningful correlations of lexemes in the clauses: It took place on Monday, and today was only Tuesday
   
4. 
   Pronominalisation in the following clause of verbal elements of the leading clause: They met him, and this meeting was not that much joyous
   

Questions

1. 
   What is the difference between mono-and polypredicative sentences?
   
2. 
   What is a predicative line (bond)?
   
3. 
   What are the types of transient cases?
   
4. 
   What are the principles of classification of a simple sentence?
   
5. 
   What are the traditional types of composite sentences?
   
6. 
   What is the difference between compound and complex sentences?
   
7. 
   What are the principles of classification of complex sentences?
   
8. 
   What do the meaningful relations between clauses of a compound sentence depend on?
   

Tasks

1. 
   The sentence the night being cold he closed the window is
   
   1. 
      A simple sentence
      
   2. 
      A transient case
      
   3. 
      A compound sentence
      

2. The sentence I want him to come is based on

1. 
   Primary and secondary predications
   
2. 
   Two primary predications
   
3. 
   One primary predication
   

1. 
   2 situations based on 2 predicative lines
   
2. 
   3 situations based on 2 predicative lines
   
3. 
   3 situations based on 3 predicative lines
   

4. In accordance with the number of predicative lines the sentences are divided into

1. 
   Simple and composite
   
2. 
   Simple, composite and compound
   
3. 
   Compound, complex and composite
   

In our everyday life we as a rule perform or play quite a lot of different roles – a student, a friend, a daughter, a son, a client, etc. When playing different roles our language means are not the same – we choose different words and expressions suitable and appropriate for the situation. We use the language as an instrument for our purposes. For instance,

have the same referential meaning but their pragmatic meaning is different, they are used in different contexts. Similarly, each utterance combines a propositional base (objective part) with the pragmatic component (subjective part). It follows that an utterance with the same propositional content may have different pragmatic components:

explanation

menace

It’s hot objection