Strategy-oriented writing instruction: an intervention study in primary schools

The present study is part of ongoing research in primary schools, aimed at the improvement of writing education in grades 4 to 6. The design is experimental, with three conditions: two intervention groups and a control group. In both intervention groups writing is taught through lessons that focus on the acquisition of strategies. In one group teachers are also trained.

We hypothesize that both interventions groups will outperform the control group, and that the training group will outperform the other intervention group.

Data are collected three times a year for two years, regarding teacher variables, the quality of writing lessons and students’ writing performance.

In 2013-2014 data were collected from forty-three teachers and their students, using a mixed-methods approach. Teacher variables were measured through a questionnaire and an interview. Information on the quality of writing lessons was obtained from these interviews and lesson observations. Students’ writing was measured in four different genres.

In this presentation the effects of the first intervention year are discussed. The following research questions will be answered:

1) Do the teacher variables (cognitions, attitudes, skills) in the intervention groups change more than the teacher variables in the control group?

2) Does the students’ writing performance in the intervention groups improve more than the students’ writing performance in the control group?

3) Is there an additional effect of teacher training?

The pre-test data have been analysed. The remaining data will be analysed before June.

This study demonstrates whether a strategy focussed writing intervention is effective in a Dutch context and whether it is wise to add a training component. This is important to know, if one wants to improve writing education.

1. A comparison of discourse characteristics of student-student interaction in secondary school English and RE lessons.

Author: Dr Manzoor Abedin, University of Cambridge. Dr Abedin is not able to participate. His paper is presented by Fran Riga and Maria Vrikki.
The study investigates classroom talk of students while working in groups within English and RE. Using information from audiotaped classroom activities, the study makes a comparative analysis of the content of talk (Rymes, 2003), the functions of language in use (Doecke et al, 2009; Purnell et al, 2004), and the evidence of comprehension and collaborative learning (Schuh, 2003). The analysis reveals the underlying intellectual and cognitive structure of the group discussions including hypothesising, generalising, analysing, and synthesising. Analysis also identifies subtle nuances in the conversational patterns leading to different forms of knowledge development.

Keywords: classroom talk; dialogic learning; knowledge development

2. Conceptualizations of Dialogic Teaching by Secondary School Teachers

Dr Maria Vrikki, University of Cambridge

Alexander, R. (2004). Towards dialogic teaching. Rethinking classroom talk. Cambridge, U.K.: Dialogos.

Lehesvuori, S., Viiri, J. & Rasku-Puttonen, H. (2011). Introducing Dialogic Teaching to Science Student Teachers. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 22(8), 705-727.

Higham, R.J.E., Brindley, S. & Van de Pol, J. (2014). Shifting the primary focus: assessing the case for dialogic education in secondary classrooms. Language and Education, 28(1), 86-99.

3. A comparative account of the dialogic teaching strategies enacted by teachers of four secondary school subjects

Dr Fran Riga, University of Cambridge

Alexander, R. (2004). Towards dialogic teaching. Rethinking classroom talk. Cambridge, U.K.: Dialogos.

Barnes, D. (2008). Exploratory Talk for Learning. In N. Mercer & S. Hodgkinson (Eds.), Exploring Talk in School (pp. 1–15). London: Sage.

Mercer, N. (2000). Words and Minds. London: Routledge.

• 
  Manzoorul Abedin & Fran Riga & Maria Vrikki
  
• 
  The study investigates classroom talk of students while working in groups within English and RE. Using information from audiotaped classroom activities, the study makes a comparative analysis of the content of talk (Rymes, 2003), the functions of language in use (Doecke et al, 2009; Purnell et al, 2004), and the evidence of comprehension and collaborative learning (Schuh, 2003). The analysis reveals the underlying intellectual and cognitive structure of the group discussions including hypothesising, generalising, analysing, and synthesising. Analysis also identifies subtle nuances in the conversational patterns leading to different forms of knowledge development.
  
• 
  
  
• 
  Keywords: classroom talk; dialogic learning; knowledge development
  
• 
  
  
• 
  References
  
• 
  Doecke, B., Gill, P., Illesca, B. & Van de Ven, P.-H. (2009). The literature classroom: Spaces for dialogue. L1-Educational Studies in Language and Literature, 9, 5–33.
  
• 
  Purnell, K., Callan, J. & Whymark, G. (2004). Managing learner interactivity: A precursor to knowledge exchange. Studies in Learning, Evaluation, Innovation and Development, 1, 32–44.
  
• 
  Rymes, B. (2003). Eliciting narratives: Drawing attention to the margins of classroom talk. Research in the Teaching of English, 37, 380–407.
  
• 
  Schuh, K.L. (2003). Knowledge construction in the learner-centered classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 426–442.
  
• 
  
  
• 
  
  
• 
  Maria Vrikki
  
• 
  The paper examines the perceptions of secondary school teachers about dialogic teaching. Specifically, data derived from semi-structured interviews conducted in schools in England with five teachers of different subjects: two Religious Education teachers, an English teacher, a Maths teacher and a Geography teacher. Each teacher provides their perspective on the characteristics of dialogic teaching and its impact, as this is operationalized in each context. By comparing these views, a comprehensive understanding of the nature and place of dialogic teaching in secondary education is proposed.
  

1. A comparison of discourse characteristics of student-student interaction in secondary school English and RE lessons.

Author: Dr Manzoor Abedin, University of Cambridge. Dr Abedin is not able to participate. His paper is presented by Fran Riga and Maria Vrikki.
The study investigates classroom talk of students while working in groups within English and RE. Using information from audiotaped classroom activities, the study makes a comparative analysis of the content of talk (Rymes, 2003), the functions of language in use (Doecke et al, 2009; Purnell et al, 2004), and the evidence of comprehension and collaborative learning (Schuh, 2003). The analysis reveals the underlying intellectual and cognitive structure of the group discussions including hypothesising, generalising, analysing, and synthesising. Analysis also identifies subtle nuances in the conversational patterns leading to different forms of knowledge development.

Keywords: classroom talk; dialogic learning; knowledge development

2. Conceptualizations of Dialogic Teaching by Secondary School Teachers

Dr Maria Vrikki, University of Cambridge

Alexander, R. (2004). Towards dialogic teaching. Rethinking classroom talk. Cambridge, U.K.: Dialogos.

Lehesvuori, S., Viiri, J. & Rasku-Puttonen, H. (2011). Introducing Dialogic Teaching to Science Student Teachers. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 22(8), 705-727.

Higham, R.J.E., Brindley, S. & Van de Pol, J. (2014). Shifting the primary focus: assessing the case for dialogic education in secondary classrooms. Language and Education, 28(1), 86-99.

3. A comparative account of the dialogic teaching strategies enacted by teachers of four secondary school subjects

Dr Fran Riga, University of Cambridge

Alexander, R. (2004). Towards dialogic teaching. Rethinking classroom talk. Cambridge, U.K.: Dialogos.

Barnes, D. (2008). Exploratory Talk for Learning. In N. Mercer & S. Hodgkinson (Eds.), Exploring Talk in School (pp. 1–15). London: Sage.

Mercer, N. (2000). Words and Minds. London: Routledge.

• 
  Manzoorul Abedin & Fran Riga & Maria Vrikki
  
• 
  The study investigates classroom talk of students while working in groups within English and RE. Using information from audiotaped classroom activities, the study makes a comparative analysis of the content of talk (Rymes, 2003), the functions of language in use (Doecke et al, 2009; Purnell et al, 2004), and the evidence of comprehension and collaborative learning (Schuh, 2003). The analysis reveals the underlying intellectual and cognitive structure of the group discussions including hypothesising, generalising, analysing, and synthesising. Analysis also identifies subtle nuances in the conversational patterns leading to different forms of knowledge development.
  
• 
  
  
• 
  Keywords: classroom talk; dialogic learning; knowledge development
  
• 
  
  
• 
  References
  
• 
  Doecke, B., Gill, P., Illesca, B. & Van de Ven, P.-H. (2009). The literature classroom: Spaces for dialogue. L1-Educational Studies in Language and Literature, 9, 5–33.
  
• 
  Purnell, K., Callan, J. & Whymark, G. (2004). Managing learner interactivity: A precursor to knowledge exchange. Studies in Learning, Evaluation, Innovation and Development, 1, 32–44.
  
• 
  Rymes, B. (2003). Eliciting narratives: Drawing attention to the margins of classroom talk. Research in the Teaching of English, 37, 380–407.
  
• 
  Schuh, K.L. (2003). Knowledge construction in the learner-centered classroom. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 426–442.
  
• 
  
  
• 
  
  
• 
  Maria Vrikki
  
• 
  The paper examines the perceptions of secondary school teachers about dialogic teaching. Specifically, data derived from semi-structured interviews conducted in schools in England with five teachers of different subjects: two Religious Education teachers, an English teacher, a Maths teacher and a Geography teacher. Each teacher provides their perspective on the characteristics of dialogic teaching and its impact, as this is operationalized in each context. By comparing these views, a comprehensive understanding of the nature and place of dialogic teaching in secondary education is proposed.
  
• 
  
  
• 
  Keywords: Dialogic teaching; Secondary school teachers; Teacher conceptualizations
  

We shall present the findings from four published studies, and discuss the practical consequences.

Braaksma, M. A. H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & Van den Bergh, H., (2002). Observational Learning and the Effects of Model-Observer Similarity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 2, 405-415

Braaksma, M., Rijlaarsdam, G., & Van den Bergh, H. (2012). Hypertext writing: Learning and transfer effects. In: M. Torrance, D. Alamargot, M. Castelló, F. Ganier, O. Kruse et al. (Eds.), Learning to write effectively: Current trends in European research (pp. 127-131). Studies in Writing, vol. 25. Bedfordshire/Connecticut: Emerald Bookstore.

Groenendijk, T., Janssen, T., Rijlaarsdam, G.,& Van den Bergh, H. (2013).Learning to be creative. The effects of observational learning on students’ design products and processes. Learning and Instruction), pp. 35-47 DOI information: 10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.05.001

Kieft, M., Rijlaarsdam, G., & Van den Bergh, H. (2006). Writing as a learning tool: Testing the role of student’s writing strategies. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 21(1), 17-34.

Kieft, M., Rijlaarsdam, G., & Van den Bergh, H. (2008). An aptitude-treatment interaction approach to writing-to-learn. Learning and Instruction, 18, 379-390

Kieft, M., Rijlaarsdam, G., Galbraith, D. & Van den Bergh, H. (2007). The effects of adapting a writing course to students writing strategies. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77, 565-578.

Van Steendam, E., Rijlaarsdam, G., Sercu. L. & Van den Bergh, H. (2010). The effect of instruction type and dyadic or individual emulation on the quality of higher-order peer feedback in EFL. Learning & Instruction, 20, p 316-327.

Beard, R. & Burrel, A. (2010). Investigating Narrative Writing by 9–11-Year-Olds’. Journal of Research in Reading 33: 77–93. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9817.2009.01433.

Kimmel, M. (2010). Boys and School: A Background Paper on the "Boy Crisis. Stockholm: Swedish Government Official Reports SOU 2010: 53. Viewed 4 January 2014. http://www.government.se/sb/d/9150/a/149169.

Langer, J. (1985). ‘Children's Sense of Genre: A Study of Performance on Parallel Reading and Writing Tasks’. Written Communication 2: 157–187.

Martin, J. & Rose, D. (2008). Genre relations: Mapping culture. London: Equinox.

Rose, D. & Martin, J. (2012). Learning to Write/Reading to Learn: Genre, Knowledge and Pedagogy in the Sydney School: Scaffolding Democracy in Literacy Classrooms. London: Equinox Publishing.

240 compositions each written in English and Japanese on the same topic were collected from Japanese-English bilingual students attending a Japanese Saturday school in Toronto (G1-9) for a larger study, of which 70 written by students in G7-G9 will be the focus of the present study. The students were instructed to spend approximately 5 minutes to generate and organise ideas and thoughts on a sheet of paper prior to writing their compositions. They were allowed to use language of their choice in doing so, while wrote compositions in the language assigned. Some drew pictures, some wrote list of words, and some started drafting the compositions right away. These various pre-writing strategies (PWS) employed by the students were classified into 5 major categories according to their features and functions.

Two questions guided this research: one is if there is any cross-lingual relationships in the use of PWS, while the other is to describe features of PWS employed by five types of bilinguals, which was determined in our previous study (Authors, 2014). These bilingual types were; 1)highly proficient in both of the languages, 2)possessing strong writing abilities in Japanese only, 3)possessing strong writing abilities in English only, 4)struggling to acquire writing skills in both of the languages, and 5)possessing moderate levels of writing skills in both of the languages.

The findings from the present study is hoped to shed light in improving educational practices in writing by presenting evidence that linguistic elements as deeply rooted in the learners’ cognition as prewriting strategies can transfer across languages typologically and orthographically distant such as Japanese and English. These findings thus call for bilingual instructional approach in writing, as has been proposed by Cummins (2005, 4).

Aims: The aim of the central project was to analyse the work of 28 teachers in NSW who were regarded by their peers as highly successful at engaging students from low SES communities with their education.

Methods: The central project used extended case studies of teacher practice.

Results: The research produced analyses of exemplary practice in terms of a) classroom experiences b) classroom processes and c) the support which teachers gave to individual students.

Discussion: Global competition between nation states in literacy achievement that is represented by international assessment regimes such as PISA can be seen as in some tension with the reality of global policy travel. A particular instance of such global policy travel is the drive towards, and almost universal agreement about, so-called 21st century skills. These almost invariably include: creativity, innovation, critical thinking, problem solving, decision-making, metacognition, information literacy, ICT literacy, communication, collaboration, local and global citizenship, personal and social responsibility – to quote a typical list (ATC21S). In terms of classroom assessment practices, one could easily argue that developing such skills in students would preclude assessment practice as being something which students simply have done to them. This paper reports on the work of two English teachers in terms of an aspect of their work which we call ‘ insider classroom’ processes. Central to our notion of the insider classroom is student self-assessment. The ways in which these teachers created opportunities for student self- (and peer-) assessment are explored in this paper. The possibilities of self- (and peer-) assessment for a students’ sophisticated understanding of their own development in English is also explored in the second, related, project in which students became researchers of self- and peer- assessment practices in classrooms.
KEYWORDS: self-assessment, peer-assessment, writing pedagogy
REFERENCES:

Sawyer, W. (2014) 'Polic(y)ing creativity', in B.Doecke, G.Parr & W.Sawyer, Language and creativity, Putney: Phoenix Education.

Assessment and Teaching of 21st century skills (ATC21S) (2009-2014) What are 21st century skills? http://atc21s.org/index.php/about/what-are-21st-century-skills/

Munns, G., Sawyer, W., Cole, B. & The Fair Go Team (2013) Exemplary teachers of students in poverty, London & New York: Routledge.